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I took the bicycle down to the Metro. However, when I thought about returning home there was a strike and I had to walk back.
For several years they have been constructing a Metro station by Colosseum. Work began in 2013 and might finish in 2024, though this is doubtful. Metro line C cuts straight through the very heart of Rome. The ground is unstable and insecure, filled with remains of ancient structures. They work day and night. Below me tunnels were dug through ancient Roman military barracks - more than thirty rooms decorated with wall frescoes and mosaic floors.
The town was quiet and almost empty.
Giorgio Castriota, called Skanderbeg, born 1405 in Kruja, Alabania, died in Lezha 1468.
The pyramid of Rome, built 18 -12 BC as a tomb for Gaius Cestius, priest and head of one of ancient Rome´s four religious congregations, Septemviri Epulonum. That is all we know about him.
Stazione Ostiense, underpasses.
Eataly
Someone lives here the entire year. He puts flowerpots in front of his trailer. I wonder who he is. Someday I will ask him.
The marketplace in Garbatella.
House entrances are lit all night.
Ponte Settimia Spizzichino
My bicycle was still standing by the Metro station.
Almost home.
When I left Rome two weeks ago, I found that most of the airport personnel had been provided with surgical masks. Once inside the plane, I became drowsy. I don´t know why, but when a plane is about to take off I have an urge to go to sleep.
While closing my eyes before departure I imagined I saw Richard Prince's suggestive painting of a nurse wearing a surgical mask. It is a quite troubling work of art with its black background and dripping paint, reminding me of Francis Bacon's screaming popes, enclosed within their absurd power.
Her soiled medical makes Prince's nurse anonymous, almost intimidating, like a disguised criminal. The sinister mood is further emphasized by white lettering behind her - Hurricane Nurse, making her appear as even more disquieting by turning her into some kind of feminine, imminent natural force.
Why did Prince name her Hurricane Nuse? Richard Prince made himself a name by using commercial myths in his art, such as the so-called Marlboro Man a virile, cigarette smoking cowboy. I suspect Prince's Hurricane Nurse is a similar role model, a female equivalent to the super-macho Marlboro Man. A powerful and attractive professional woman.
It would not surprise me if Prince had been inspired by Peggy Gaddis (1895-1965) who for several years once a month wrote so-called nurse novels, including one called Hurricane Nurse. I am fascinated by pulp fiction writers. While writing my extensive blogs I identify myself with their hectic prolificacy, like Barbara Cartland with her record number more than 700 novels. Peggy Gaddis ”only,” wrote around fifty novels, though that was not a bad output either. I consider my blog-writing to be akin to Peggy Gaddi's description of her pencraft: ”It's a kind of drug, for which I hope no one ever finds a cure”
I haven't read anything by Peggy Gaddis, though I assume her nurse novels were far spicier than those Helen Wells (1910-1986) wrote about Cherry Ames's platonic relationships with various strapping and admirable Men in White. Helen Wells was even more productive than Peggy Gaddis, writing at least fifty novels under her own name and several others under pseudonyms. However, unlike Peggy Gaddis, Wells did not direct her novels to an adult audience but to girls, who in those days were not supposed to be exposed to an overly raw reality. Throughout her career, her heroine Cherry Ames was engaged in every conceivable professional role available to a nurse. Always remaining an impeccable role model; effective, beautiful and despite her romantic involvement with attractive, male superiors, she did in all novels remain single. Apart from doing her job, Helen Wells makes Cherry Ames solve several criminal cases. The author's obvious purpose was to stimulate girls to become professional, chaste and independent nurses.
My youngest sister, who I assume read the entire Cherry Ames series, actually became a nurse and I know she has enjoyed her career choice. I actually read some of the yellow-spined books about the super nurse (otherwise were girls´ books in those days generally red-spined, while boys´ books were green-spined). At that time, I was unrestrained in my reading and read almost anything I assumed was interesting among the books I found at home, and much more besides However, Cherry Ames proved to be a quite boring acquaintance. Too much romance and rectitude. And how could such a conscientious and skilled person like Cherry Ames change jobs all the time? The novels´ titles informed us that Cherry Ames had been army-, chief-, flight-, rest home-, summer camp-, rural-, private duty-, jungle-, department store-, boarding school-, dude ranch-, clinic-, and hotel nurse, apart from several other nursing jobs and on top of that she did not get any older. Was she constantly dismissed? I probably read two or three Cherry Ames books and then returned to Biggles and Deerfoot. These ”books for boys” were certainly not better written and far more prejudiced than those about Cherry Ames, but what was not at all noticed by a kid with an eye for adventure.
After vacillating between dream and alertness, I came round when the plane had reached its normal flight altitude. An internet connection was available and since no one was sitting beside me I had enough space för computer surfing – I don´t like using my cellphone for that.
I wanted to know more about the coronavirus and what I found was fascinating. The microscopic virus world is just as remarkable and incomprehensible as any other phenomenon in the Universe, by far exceeding the limiting framework of our human mind, enclosed as it is within questions like "how?" and why?".
It has been stated that a virus is not a life form because it lacks a metabolism of its own and is unable to reproduce without entering an organism. Nevertheless, it is alive in the sense that it is able to breed and can thus be described as ”an intermediate entity”, something in between living and dead matter. Viruses propagate by invading living cells, using their functions to create new virus particles.
As with living organisms, there are a variety of ”species”, or forms, of viruses of which at least six hundred ”survive” by infecting humans. Their existence is dependent on our misery, like humans viruses are parasites exploiting, damaging and often destroying other life forms. Virus causes a wide variety of phenomena, some are violently feared, others considered to be fairly harmless. However, all viral infections can have a lethal outcome and there is no cure for any of them, although some can be vaccinated against. Some examples of diseases causeb by viruses are herpes, shingles, brain inflammation, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, rabies, ebola, HIV/AIDS and influenza.
Every year, influenza viruses travel through the world and seriously infect between three and five million people, of whom between 290,000 and 650,000 dies. This is part of our human existence and rarely causes panic. However, fear spreads when ”new” viruses make their appearance. In 2002, SARS appeared in China and infected 8,098 persons worldwide, of whom 774 died. Less well-known is MERS, which in 2012 originated in the Middle East infecting 2,494 persons and killed 858. SARS probably spread from bats to civet cats and from them to humans, while dromedaries carried MERS.
The surgical masks worn at the Rome airport were designed to protect people from the Wuhan Corona Virus discovered in Wuhan on December 31, 2019, and traced to its markets. At the time of writing, we do not know for sure what animal it was that transmitted the virus to humans, though the main suspects come from the ”wildlife” markets. Something that, after my time in Hanoi by the beginning of the 1990s is not at all surprising to me. At that time, I could at the city's restaurants find a section which sometimes was written in French - de la forêt, ”from the forest” where dishes cooked on various exotic animals were offered. I and my good friend Svante Kilander, who at that time was Secretary of Embassy, often considered whether we should order a stewed pangolin. We jokingly wondered if you ate the animal's scales dipped in melted butter like the bracts of an artichoke. Thankfully, we never ate any pangolin, it would have given me a bad conscience.
Live and slaughtered dogs, pangolins, snakes, monkeys and other animals were sold at the large Dong Xuan market that burned down in 1994, a year after we had left Vietnam.
A few days ago I read that the pangolin is now the prime suspect for transmitting the Wuhan Corona Virus. One of the reasons for the spread of this specific virus may be that the hands of some pangolin butcher which after being in contact with the poor animal's flesh have transmitted the infection to people. The virus now spreads through direct skin contact, or by spreading virus particles through microscopic droplets that attack you if an infected person coughs you in the face. However, the virus cannot travel through the air at a longer distance than one metre.
As the name indicates, the Wuhan Corona Virus, like SARS and MERS, is a coronavirus. The denomination derives from the Latin word for ”crown” and comes from the fact that if the virus is viewed through an electron microscope it seems to be surrounded by a corona. like the sun. What looks like a shining corona is actually small ”tags” that link the virus to the cell that will be infected.
Like other unpleasant viruses, such as HIV / AIDS and ebola, coronavirus is a retrovirus. This means that the virus´s RNA molecule, which is single-stranded, i.e. it has only one chain, unlike the double-stranded DNA (double helix). The RNA strand of a coronavirus joins the DNA of an infected cell and this transforms it into another type of DNA. This abnormally altered DNA now affects the cell's information flow, which is stimulated to create harmful proteins. Under normal conditions it is the DNA that uses RNA as a ”messenger” between the genes, creating proteins that encode the hereditary information that is stored within each organism. The treacherous retrovirus uses its RNA to encode DNA, rather than the other way around, which is why it is called a retrovirus.
I an amateur when it comes to understanding and describing this strange microcosm, it might thus be that I have misunderstood the entire process, but that does not prevent me from being fascinated by how these strange transformations within a tiny microcosm can have enormous consequences in our human dimension of existence.
A common concern is that after a little more than a month, the Wuhan Corona Virus has proven to be more deadly than both SARS and MERS, it is already damaging China's economy. At the time of writing, on the twenty-first of February, 76 769 cases have been confirmed. In China, 2 239 persons have died from the virus, which now has spread to 26 other countries where it has so far only caused eight deaths.
All over the world people now fear that the Wuhan Corona Virus might develop into pandemic just like the deadliest flu epidemic ever – The Spanish Flu that agonized the entire world during the end of World War I and during some of the following years. In 1918, it killed my grandfather, made my father fatherless at the age of one year and forced him, his four siblings and my grandmother to live in poverty for many years. People were weakened by the war and other tribulations caused by it. Tightly-knit groups in trenches, in barracks, or during troop transports spread the virus at great speed, a development further supported by new, improved means of transport. Spain was not particularly hard hit, but since this nation did not participate in the war and furthermore had better health control than most other countries, the flu epidemic could be ascertained, tracked and means to control it was early put in place, hence the name Spanish Flu.
The pandemic raged at its worst between March 1918 and June 1920, reaching Inuit in the Arctic and Polynesians in the Pacific. Spanish Flu became the pandemic known to have killed most humans in shortest time. In twenty-five months, it killed between 50 and 100 million people, i.e. three to six percent of the world population. An estimated 500 million were infected, which corresponds to one-third of all people at the time. Of those diagnosed with the flu, at least 2.5 percent died, which can be compared to a normal flu epidemic during which no more than 0.1 percent die.
In contemporary photographs, we see that healthcare personnel just like now wore surgical masks. How effective are they really? WHO, The United Nations World Health Organization, notes that the use of surgical maks is no guarantee against infection. These masks, which are most common, were actually made to keep infectious agents from surgeons´ noses and mouths while operating and not designed to protect from virus particles. They can nevertheless provide some protection, but they do not seal of mouth and nose tightly enough and leave eyes and other parts of the body unprotected. In addition, after a day's use, the masks have to be washed, disinfected, or discarded. The Wuhan Virus also has certain properties making it difficult to control. Unlike SARS and Ebola, which are contagious only after symptoms of an infection have emerged, the Wuhan Virus may be dormant up to fourteen days and during this time a person, even if unaware of her/his sickness, can infect others not only by sneezing but through touch, speech, and even breath, though only within a radius of one metre. Even if our bare skin has been protected by gloves the infection might affect us if our gloved hands touch naked skin, for example of the face. Within an hour a person touches her/his face at an average of 23 times. More important than wearing a face mask is to wash/disinfect our hands as many times as possible and keep away from infected persons
Viral diseases are generally not curable. However, if they are dispersed within a large population their contagious abilities are thinned out while people´s immune systems are gradually strengthened. Nevertheless, the virus does not disappear entirely – it becomes endemic, i.e. restricted within a population group but not as lethal as it was at its appearance. This means that contacts with people who have not previously been exposed to a specific kind of virus might be lethally affected since they have not built up any sufficient immune defense against it. The result of such sudden infections can be devastating. Admittedly, The Black Death which in the mid-1400s, killed between thirty and eighty percent of Europe's population was not caused by a virus, but by a bacteria hosted by the Oriental Rat Flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, which fed on the Black Rat, Rattus rattus, but all indicate that the spread of the plague became devastating due to the advancing Mongolian army, which initially attacked the Chinese Yuan Empire during the 1330s when the Plague during three years decimated the population of the Hebei Province by ninety percent. Five million people died. The plague then spread throughout Asia. almost simultaneously with the advance of the Mongolian armed forces and the huge migrations they gave rise to. the plague reached Europe with Genoese galleys which arrived in Italy in 1347 from the port city of Kaffa on the Crimean Peninsula, which had been captured and looted by the Mongolian Golden Horde, Ulug Ulus.
Even more devastating than the Black Death were the pandemics that Europeans and Africans, together with cows, pigs and chickens, brought with them to America after 1492. Millions of people succumbed to viral diseases such as yellow fever, influenza, smallpox, chickenpox, and hepatitis. Most often the effect was syndemic, i.e. a number of diseases co-operated to infect and kill people, though it also happened that one disease could take the upper hand. For example, between 1545 and 1548, the bacterial disease salmonella killed eighty percent of Mexico's population, which had already been decimated by syndemic epidemics. Between 1575 and 1590, the salmonella returned to Mexico, killing half of those who had escaped its first attack.
During the 1700- and 1800s, smallpox killed 80 percent of the indigenous population in North America and between 1600 and 1650 malaria parasites, brought there by slaves from Africa, decimated large population in South America. What made the situation in the Americaz unique was that indigenous populations rarely recovered from the deadly epidemics. In Europe, economy and public health were generally boosted by ravages of deadly pandemics – the reduced labour supply made that farmers and workers generally were better treated than before the onslaught of plagues. The shock effect of mass death made people more likely to cooperate and make life more bearable for everyone. On the contrary, in the Americas indigenous peoples and imported slaves continued to be treated ruthlessly and their numbers were further decimated by deliberate extinction and inhuman oppression.
Afflictions, such as The Justinian Plague, which between 541 and 542 killed an estimated 25 to 50 million people, The Black Death with its 75 to 200 million victims and the so-called Third Pandemic, which in the mid-1900s killed at least twelve million in China and India were all a form of bubonic plague, caused by the plague bacteria Yersinia pestis, which like the flu, spread through sneezing, which made most people believe that the disease was carried by infected air, miasma. One way to protect yourself from bad air (mala aria) was to wear a mask in front of your nose and mouth, later on, combined with glasses. A feature of carnivals has often been masks inspired by those worn during plague epidemics, such as the Venetian mask called Il Dottore.
Plague, masks, and carnival have been portrayed by Edgar Allan Poe in his novel The Masque of the Red Death, in which Prince Prospero tries to escape a plague known as The Red Death. Together with friends and confidants he remains hidden away from the world in a monastery. One night the wealthy prince arranges a sumpteous masquerade ball in seven of the convent's halls. Each salon is decorated in a specific colour. During the festivities, a mysterious, ulcerous figure emerges. His face is hidden behind a hideous masque resembling someone who has been disfigured by the plague. The creepy character slowly moves back and forth from room to room, dampening the festive mood. Prospero becomes infuriated and cries out: ”Who dares insult us with this blasphemous mockery? Seize him and unmask him—that we may know whom we have to hang, at sunrise, from the battlements!” As no one in the festive crowd dares to raise a hand towards the eerie figure, who continues to slide from room to room, the enraged prince draws a dagger from his belt and rushes after the uninvited guest, who slowly has entered the azure room. The uninvited guest meets his attacker's maddened gaze, something that makes Propero fall to the floor, while his body is contorted by agonizing pain. After recovering from their shock, several of the masked guests throw themselves upon the frightening apparition, which now has reached the black room and looms next to a large clock, facing the hall. The men who try to seize the phantom find that they are merely grasping empty air.
And now was acknowledged the presence of the Red Death. He had come like a thief in the night. And one by one dropped the revelers in the blood-bedewed halls of their revel and died each in the despairing posture of his fall. And the life of the ebony clock went out with that of the last of the gay. And the flames of the tripods expired. And Darkness and Decay and the Red Death held illimitable dominion over all.
Maquerades and artificial euphoria cannot cover up the relentless presence of Death. An insight that was strongly emphasized during the aftermath of The Black Death, when churches and palaces were decorated with representations of the Dance Macabre and Triumph of the Death. People were frightened, but tried to master death by playing with it, as in the Venetian Commedia dell'arte
performances from which the Dottore masque originated.
This classic masque is unmistakably reminiscent of the one seen on a famous Roman copper engraving from 1656. The attire and face masque were designed by the French king Louis XIII's physician, Charles de Lorme (1584-1678). This kind of protective clothing was soon used by plague doctors all over Europe.
The equipment was based on theories about infected air as a vector of the plague. Accordingly, you had to protect your entire body and especially the respiratory organs, from the harmful effects of penetrating mal aria, bad air. The long beak of the plague mask was filled with aromatic herbs intended to keep the odour of bad air away and at the same time cleanch it from the foulness that was revealed by stench. As a matter of fact, the full coverage could actually protect the wearer from virus-carrying air particles and pest-spreading vermin. It was not until 1894 it was established that the plague orignated from a flea and the same year is was dicovered that malaria was spread by a mosquito.
The grotesque appearance of the plague doctors soon became terrifying and tangible proof of the presence of death, and all over Europe they became part of masquerades, parades, and ceremonies reminding about ”the brevity of life, the certainty of death and the duration of eternity.”
Of course, illness, death, plague, and suffering were not only linked to the miasma, pestilent air, but that were also regarded as God's punishment for committed sins, incessant sloth and bad behaviour. In a similar fashion as unclean air had to be purified and kept out, people tried to free their communities from sinful influences; disobedient children, lazy people, strangers with unknown/abnormal behaviour and customs, in short – all deviations from ”normal behaviour”. Threats, fear and abuse were weapons used in healing and purification processes, while the sinister methods often were alleviated by jokes and a carnivalistic mood.
Filled with such thoughts, I got off the plane in Prague and took the train home to my oldest daughter's family. At night, when the others had gone to bed, my daughter and I talked about masques, horror and folk traditions. She suggested that we could visit the Prague Museum of Folk Culture and look at costumes and masks from rather terrifying Czech folk festivals. Janna had come to think about Czech Advent celebrations when villages and towns in the past, and in some places even now, were filled with people in frightening apparel. Not least so-called Barborcas who made their appearance on St. Barbora's day, the fourth of December. Could their attire be associated with both the Swedish St. Lucia celebrations and the Plague?
Women dressed in white robes, often armed with long knives as well as birch rods, walked from door to door not only during the Barbora day but often during evenings leading up to Christmas. Some of these Barborcas wore paper cones in front of their faces, others concealed them with veils and hanging hair. To ease their frightening looks, some also carried baskets filled with fruits and sweets that they gave away to the children.
When I told her about my thoughts about surgical- and plague masks, Janna showed me pictures of the ones worn by Barborkas and they undoubtedly reminded of plague doctors' masks. And really – as we checked the web for older depictions of Barborkas, we found that some of them actually carried masques even more reminiscent of the plague doctors´apparel. Where they really connected with the Plague? Maybe, maybe not – the Barborka outfit might just as well allude to birds, possibly storks, an impression supported by the fact that some Barborkas had bird claws instead of hands.
The stork and other aquatic animals often serve as fertility symbols and are in fairy tales connected with the birth of children. Such fertility associations might maybe explain why Barborkas carry baskets with fruits and vegetables? And why was it only women who dressed up as Barborkas? Why did they look and behave threateningly? Why did they carry birch rods and knives? Why were they dressed in white? Why did they show up during the weeks before Christmas? Furthermore, their costumes reminded of those being worn by masked penitents during impressive Easter processions in Spain and Italy, and not the least of Ku Klux Klan garments. Questions piled up and directed me towards exciting and somewhat worrying paths.
Birth and death, sorrow and joy. Loneliness and community. Starvation and illness. Seasonal changes, the unpredictability of nature. The familiar and the unknown. All this is present in our daily life and for sure overshadowed the life of peasants enclosed by daily toil and strong traditions.
Eventually, we visited Národopisné muzeum, Prague´s Ethnographic Museum and encountered a world characterized by a rich, beautiful, amusing, strange and sometimes macabre culture. Elegantly crafted work tools and everyday items, lavish wedding outfits, embroidered baptismal dresses, and blankets, all these exquisitely executed items testified that we humans are flock animals. We have a need to share both our misery and our happiness, something peasants occasionally did through great and impressive festivities. Many of these festivities were not exclusively focused on experiences of individuals but were collective events celebrating sowing and harvesting, winter and summer solstices, Pentecost, fasting, Easter, and Christmas.
Joint partying, shared joy, constituted an integrated part of a world where fertility and sterility, birth and death, were far greater realities than they are nowadays. It was common to regard black and white, life and death as opposite sides of the same coin, evident in traditions that have been maintained for centuries and thus convey an impression of being both time- and boundless. When we scrutinize such rites and conceptions we find layer upon layer of associations and ancient notions about how the world was created and how we should relate to it.
Extremely important times in the peasant calendar were winter and summer solstices. The word solstice is related to the Latin solstitium, combined by the word for ”sun” and sistere, ”to stand still”. People believed that during these times of the year the sun had paused at the northern or southern boundaries of its celestial path and then changed direction. Solstices constituted turning points in both human and nature's life. They constituted occasions for seriously reflecting on our existence, our moment on earth. This was especially crucial during the mid-winter solstice when the ground was frozen, the sky dark and starry and agricultural work resting. Accordingly, peasants were free to mull over the crimes and mistakes they have committed and realize that they probably hade to seize the opportunities that lie in store in an authentic reliance upon the grace of God or the gods. They also had to seek support from one another, in their shared ability to find and follow the path that leads to their own and thus the others´ benefit and salvation.
Such reflections and improvement were particularly crucial when the sun stood still and had been preceded by a time when evil forces had made themselves noticeable. A time of darkness, sterility, foul game and death that required the mobilization of benevolent forces to vanquish the evil powers and secure their dominion of Earth and the souls of men. Evil must be punished and driven away, a struggle that humans could contribute to by visualizing both the evil and the good forces.
It was now that Lucia processions made their appearance in Sweden and Baborkas roamed the roads and paths in Bohemia, the ancient name of the Czech Republic. Did those rites and processions originate from the Christian faith? Do they really honour saints like Saint Lucia and Saint Barbara? Probably not, they are rather manifestations, reverberations of ancient pre-Christain beliefs and rituals.
Canon Episcopi constituted a part of the medieval canonical law and was probably written sometime during the 10th century. Around 1140, the so-called Decretum Gratiani was adopted by the Pope and became an essential component of Catholic dogma. This decree was dispersed among the clergy and intended to serve as a weapon against everything that threatened the power of the Church. A guide not only in how to punish rebellions against the true doctrines of the Church but also devising methods of direct offenders to the righteous path through penitence and improvement and if that was not possible – punish or exclude them.
The bishops and their ministers should by all means make great a effort so that they may thoroughly eradicate the pernicious art of divination and magic, invented by the devil, from their parishes, and if they find any man or woman adhering to such a crime, they should eject them, turpidly dishonoured, from their parishes.
It is by Burchard (950 - 1025), Bishop of Worms, that we for the first time find written hints of a powerful and obviously international cult of a female, ”pagan” divinity. Burchard wrote comments on the text that would later be affirmed as Canon Episcopi. Several versions of this law eventually included Burchard's observations as part of the law text.
Have you believed there is some female, whom the stupid vulgar call Holda, who is able to do a certain thing, such that those deceived by the devil affirm themselves by necessity and by command to be required to do, that is, with a crowd of demons transformed into the likeness of women, on fixed nights to be required to ride upon certain beasts, and to themselves be numbered in their company? If you have performed participation in this unbelief, you are required to do penance for one year on designated fast-days.
Belief in an almost omnipotent female divinity, mistress of nature; fertility, birth, and death, appears to have been an essential part of traditional, European thinking, perhaps it was even a global phenomenon. Like nature, this divinity was beyond good and evil. In fact, she included in her character what we perceive as distinct qualities, like life and death. This mother-goddess of could reveal herself in both terrifying and benevolent manifestations. More than five hundred years after Bishop Burchard wrote his comments, Martin Luther mentioned Frau Hulde in one of his comments on the Bible's epistles. He appears to be describing a procession of disguised participants:
Here cometh up Dame Hulde with the snout, to wit, nature, and goeth about to gainstay her God and give him the lie, hangeth her old ragfair about her, the straw-harness; then falls to work and scrapes it featly on her fiddle.
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In present-day Germany, stories might still be told about Frau Holle, an old lady who sneaks around during the night, visiting dreams of lazy girls, who may suddenly wake up by finding themselves lying naked in the street. Diligent little girls, however, may be rewarded with a silver coin under their pillow, or during bygone times with a coin falling into their buckets when they had been fetching water. Frau Holle has to do with water and in the depths of springs, wells, and lakes there is a path leading to a wonderful garden where she, as a white-clad old lady, receives both kind and naughty girls, whom she then rewards or punishes according to their merits.
The Grimm brothers told a story about her. A widow had two daughters, her own daughter whom she, as in most stories, spoiled and one stepdaughter whom she treated poorly. The stepdaughter was forced to sit next to a well, spinning day after day, though she was one evening stuck by the needle of the spinning wheel. However, when she went over to the well to rinse the needle and her bloody fingers, she fell into it. Instead of drowning, she found herself in a flowering meadow. As she walked across it, she came to a cottage surrounded by a blossoming garden. where she was greeted by a gentle, old lady who took her into her service. The girl watered the garden flowers, washed, aired and shook the bedding. When the girl once told the kind, old lady, that she despite in spite of all her graciousness longed for home, the benevolent Frau Holle let the girl return to her stepmother dressed in beautiful clothes and equipped with plenty of gold coins. When the stepmother understood what had happened, she threw her adored but miserably spoiled daughter into the well. This lazy and corrupted girl also ended up with Frau Holle, but misbehaved in such a manner that the powerful Frau made her return covered by filth and tar.
The story is one variant of many others that tell about omnipotent women disguised as nice old ladies, or nasty hags, testing the heroine's kindness and skills and abundantly reward her if she passes the ordeals. Frau Hulda is in Grimm's story welcoming and friendly, though for example in a folk tale retold by Alexander Afanasiev – Vasilisa the Beautiful, Frau Holle's Russian equivalent, the terrible old hag Baba Yaga, nevertheless rewards the steadfast Vasilisa just as generously as Frau Holle. The Grimm brothers' fairy tales also have their frightening witches, no less terrifying than Baba Yaga, for example in their tale about Frau Trude.
A defiant girl ignores her parents' advice to avoid visiting Frau Trude's cottage in the depths of the forest. The stubborn girl imagines her parents' prohibition is based on their superstitions and fears. However, she knows that the old hag is filthy rich and assumes she may be able to lure her off some of these riches. Frau Trude receives the girl in a courteous manner and asks her if she has met someone on her way to her secluded abode. The girl tells the truth – she has met but not spoken to a black rider, a ”charcoal burner” explains Trude, a green rider, a ”hunter” states Trude and finally a red rider, a ”butcher” according to Frau Trude.
Similar riders appear in the tale about Vasilisa the Beautiful and there they are the servants of Baba Yaga. A white rider, who is the Day, a red one who is the Sun and a black rider who is the Night. In Grimms´ tale the girl adds that she has also seen another creature. When she peeked in through the window of Frau Trude's cottage, she saw the Devil sitting there. The annoyed Frau Trude declares that she is really Satan himself and then transforms the girl into a log of wood, which she throws into the fire. The witch states: ”It heats well and the cottage has become brighter,” thus the story ends on a more infelicitous note that use to be the case of most fairy tales.
Child robbers, night walkers, cannibals and a host of other monsters haunt European fairy tales in all conceivable shapes and sizes. Ancient mythologies used to be dominated by female monsters but over time, male villains increased in number and prominence. Similarly, male tellers of fairy tales and myths gradually usurped a female story telling tradition firmly rooted in an ancient peasant society where men worked in fields and forests, while women were responsible for children and home. They spun, weaved, managed the gardens, baked and cooked. Their activities were related to fertility and maintenance, nourishing activities like raising children, being responsible for the sick and the old and thus they also preserved ancient traditions linked to female existence, women´s duties to care for life and prepare the dead for the afterlife. This, in any case, claims Marina Warner in her well-written and fascinating studies of popular storytelling – From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers and No Go the Bogeyman: Scaring, Lulling and Making Mock.
Manyof the stories told by these peasant women were about dangerous and ambivalent old hags, some of which might have preserved traits from ancient, pagan godessess, Frau Holle and above all the Russian Baba Yaga might indicate such origins. The Slavic Baba Yaga, who had a certain appetite for children's flesh, eventually evolved into an individual character, with a cottage moving on chicken legs and her unusual mode of flight. She traveled in a wooden mortar which she steered with a pestle while sweeping away the tracks left behind with a broom. She has had clattering teeth as a lock for her door, the roof was made of pancakes and the walls of meat pies. Baba Yaga was a multi-faceted creature, not only incarnate evil but also a cunning lady who ruled over sun and wind, over the seasons, life and death. Like many other fairy tale creatures, she was a shapeshifter and could assume the aspects of a cat or a bird. Forest birds were her servants, as well as several powerful men and gods, such as the three horsemen and the sinister Koščéj the Immortal, ruler of the Kingdom of Death.
One of the Grimm brothers, Jacob (1785-1863), was among the first to discern a close connection between fairy tales and traditions, rites and notions stretching far back in time, across borders and cultures. In his Deutsche Myhologie he extended descriptions of mythology from mainly having been devoted to written tales about gods and heroes, as well as records of established religious dogmas. Jacob's and his brother's studies of oral traditions made him compare them with contemporary customs and rituals, as well as written descriptions of historical customs and notions. All in an effort to trace the origins and development of ”Germanic” culture. Of course, he was often mistaken, particularly when it came to etymology, changes over time and specific cultural contexts. Nevertheless, Jacob Grimm's approach influenced later interpretations of different customs and was an important contribution to the budding science of ethnology. The concept had been established by Adam Franz Kollár´s epochal Amenities of the History and Constitutional Law of the Kingdom of Hungary published two years before the birth of Jacob Grimm. In this book, Kollár described ethnology as:
the science of nations and peoples, or, that study of learned men in which they inquire into the origins, languages, customs, and institutions of various nations, and finally into the fatherland and ancient seats, in order to be able better to judge the nations and peoples in their own times.
Before I return to Czech Advent customs let me follow some thoughts originating from Jacob Grimm's theories about the nature and origin of Frau Holle. He considered tales spun around her as evidence of the survival of an ancient belief in a nature deity, which had mingled with the Roman Diana and later on with Virgin Mary, Jesus's mother and Keeper of the World.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004904-39ce039ce2/frau holle norse mythology art (2).jpg)
Jacob Grimm relates the name ”Holle”, with notions about Norse huldror, who were chotonic creatures. It appeared as if Frau Holle had inherited some eerie features from the huldror, for example in her role as mistress of the souls of the dead. Frau Holle's kingdom was placed under water and resembled some a kind of Paradise, like the medieval Virgin Mary's Rose Garden. Like some Catholic saints and angels, Holle presided over changes in the weather, which is crucial for any peasant. When the girl in the fairy tale waters the flowers of Frau Holle's garden it rains on Earth and when she shakes bolsters and pillows it snows.
Frau Holle is linked to ”female” chores, such as spinning and weaving, just like the ancient Nordic norns who spun the fate of humans. In the tale about the evil Frau Trude, probably akin to Frau Holle, the witch rules over three riders, who may be identical to the horsemen in the stories dealing with Baba Yaga, where they correspond to the sun and the circadian rhythm.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004905-3b59b3b59e/Belo Cernobog.jpg)
Furthermore, Frau Holle is a shapeshifter and manifests herself as both an evil and a benevolent creature, as light or dark, old or young. She is the epitome of a constantly changing nature beyond good and evil.
If we study ancient Slavic beliefs we may find that they are ambiguous, even bipolar. Chronica Sclavorum, which recounted the pre-Christian culture of Polabian Slavs, was written by the end of the twelfth century and suggested that Svetovid, their supreme god, had two aspects who in their own right were worshipped as gods, Belobog, the White God, and Chernobog, the Black God. This aspect of Slav religion is irrefutably proven, though it reflects quite convincingly much of the duality found among the creatures which emerge during Czech Advent celebrations. Not the least do Saint Barbora unite the evil and benevolent features of a being like Frau Holle and perhaps even more so in her threatening appearance as Frau Perchta.
The word perchta which later came to be associated with Saint Bertha/Barbora, or more correctly Saint Barbara, comes from the Old High German word perhat, "shining" or "brightness". Something that may be related to Frau Perchta's appearance by the beginning of December, an indication of the return of light after the winter solstice. In processions, Frau Perchta may just like Frau Holle appear crowned by a wreath with burning candles and it may be difficult to find any difference between these white-clad ladies and the famous Lucia, who at the same time is celebrated all over Sweden. Like Lucia do Perchta and Holle in their beautiful aspects wear wide, red silk ribbons around their waists.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004937-9ecab9ecad/Vintage Lucia (2).jpg)
However, it is more common to associate Frau Perchta not with brightness, but with paleness. White was until the middle of the nineteenth century the colour of death. A corpse turns pale; becomes grey or white. Both children and adults were buried in white clothes and usually in white coffins.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004906-d0b80d0b83/Tjeckisk skräcklucia.jpg)
Frau Perchta lived at the bottom of wells from where she often attracted children whom she drowned. Like Frau Holle, Frau Perchta was often called The Dark Grandmother or The White Lady. When she emerges during Advent, it is mainly in the guise of a punishing lady with an entourage of evil and horrendous creatures, like the terrifying Krampus and/or children she has killed.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004907-2eb942eb98/Frau Perchta (2).jpg)
As mentioned above, Martin Luther described ”Dame Hulde” as girded with a corset of straw, probably a sign of her role as a fertility goddess. Straw and fertility are also connected with Frau Perchta/Barbora. She carries with her a basket of fruits and sweets to give to young women who diligently had spun hugh quantities of yarn and to children who had behaved well. However, the punishement she meted for sloth and misbehaviour was terrible, to say the least. With her sharpened knife she slit open the bellies of her victims, ripped out their guts and replaced them with straw.
In her Czech aspect as Barbora, Frau Perchta might also appear as a ghoul with her face hidden behind long, striped hair, she is then associated with a demon who sneaks into nurseries to kill, or even eat, babies. Child mortality used to be a dreaded and ordinary scourge and was generally blamed on supernatural forces.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004908-638c0638c3/Perchta barnslaktare (2).jpg)
Saint Barbora did not only manifest herself as the dreadful Frau Perchta, more common was that Barborkas represented her by placing long cones in front of their faces and some covered one of their feet with a dummy in the form of a bird's claw or goose's foot, emphasizing Barborka's quality as a water creature. Water is condider as the ultimate source of all fertility and as mentioned above aquatic animals such as frogs and storks were associated with childbirth.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004909-030cd030d0/barborka med strut.jpg)
Already during the Middle Ages, Frau Hulda´s entourage was labeled as ”demons”. Perhaps a remnant of the wild hunts that Odin and all kinds of beasts used to devote themselves to during the winter months when the powers of darkness were evoked from their hiding places and threatened to take over the world if they could not be kept in check by the mighty Nature Goddess. Nevertheless, evil creatures could be allowed to punish children and adults who violated social rules. Thus, even such a terrifying figure as Krampus could be considered as a servant of benevolent forces. He is an unusually disgusting, horned monster, described as "half goat, half demon" but even significantly more horrible than that. His name is derived from the Old High German word krampen which meant ether "claw," or "curved," a hint of his predatory appearance and behaviour and the fact that he is a grotesque abnormality, a mix of demon and animal. Possibly Krampus is akin to the Baba Yaga´s subordinate Koščéj the Immortal, a symbol of uncontrolled natural forces and the certainty of death.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004910-74ec074ec4/Krampus_at_Perchtenlauf_Klagenfurt (2).jpg)
In the Czech Republic, Krampus emerges as a companion to Saint Nicholas while he hands out Christmas presents to children. Krampus is then often called Čert, a name usually translated as The Devil. However, Čert is actually not the same creature as The Devil. He is certainly a demon, but the word apparently comes from čersti/čьrtǫ, meaning "to draw a line", "making a furrow" and Čert could then be considered to be an incarnation of Death and thus a servant to Barbora /Frau Perchta and their connections to birth and death.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004911-e4e77e4e7a/Lada Cert (2).jpg)
Perhaps the Swedish Christmas Goat is a remnant of the horned Krampus/Čert. Before the Tomte, the Swedish equivalent to Santa Claus, took upon himself that task it was The Christmas Goat that came to Swedish children with both gifts and punishment. Another coincidence between the Swedish Christmas Goat and Czech Advent creatures may be the importance of the straw. The Swedish Christmas goat's mask was often made of straw and,like Krampus/Čert, he was generally dressed in a black fur coat. Even if the Chistmas Goat does not appear in person anymore, almost every Swedish home has a goat made of straw standing by the Christmas tree.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004912-1d60f1d611/julbocken_petter_och_lottas_jul (2).jpg)
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004947-ecd7eecd80/julbock (2).jpg)
In Finland, the Christmas Goat, Joulupukki, has become Santa Klaus´s companion and may thus recall the chained Čert, who follows Saint Nicholas during his Christmas visits. The fact that Saint Nicholas has a goat- or devil-like companion is a common feature of several European Christmas traditions, although in Slavic folklore this companion is not always demonic, but exhibits the same ambiguous characteristics as those of exposed by Belobog and Chernobog.
In Russian folk culture, Saint Nicholas is often replaced by Ded Moroz, Father Frost, who is brought forward as white-bearded and cloak-clad, although his mantle is blue, or ice-coloured. The origin of Ded Moroz is probably a Slavic winter god, or "winter demon" as Christian missionaries would denominate him.
Ded Moroz's companion is not a devil-like creature but the beautiful Snegurochka, the Snow Maiden. She seems to be a Baba Yaga in her beautiful appearance, since like Ded Moroz Snegurochka is endowed with a double character. She can be both benevolent and wicked. When Ded Moroz does not come with gifts, he may appear as the Siberian winter cold, freezing his victims to death. In a similar manner, the cold Snegurochka can appear as the Mistress of Winter and thus also kill people through her iciness. Then she is called The Snow Queen and has as such inspired H.C. Andersen's fairy tale of the same name, which later palyed some part as an antecedent for the Disney Company's successful movie Frozen.
In German tradition, on the other hand, a vicious figure appears as Saint Nicholas's companion, but he is then more humanized than the animalistic beast Čert. Knecht Rupert is wearing a black or brown mantel with a wide belt. He is limping due to some childhood injury. The legend tells us that he was an orphan who Saint Nicholas took care of and later turned into a loyal vassal.
Knecht Rupert wears a pointed hood and holds a birch rod with which he punishes nasty children. He may also hit them with a sack filled with ashes, often adorned with bells. If he carries such a sack, he is called Belsnickel. The sack can also be empty and he then uses it to carry nasty children, down to a lake where he drowns them.
In this apparition, Knecht Rupert reminds me, as a child of the Swedish district of Göinge, of a song by Peps Persson, the great singer/poet of my native place, telling how an old Granny tries to frighten her grandchildren with a ghoul familiar from my childhood:
In the attic, she says, there lives a man with a beard down to his knees,
she says she has seen him from time to time, when she´s alone.
If the children ventures up there and if they are not nice,
he takes them and puts them in his child cage.
The kids laugh at her and say they don´t believe in such goofy stuff and that Santa Claus is a lie as well. They think it is a waste of time to listen to fairy tales and prefer to play with their video games instead.
In northern France, Sant Nikolaus has a companion who dressed like Knecht Rupert, but there he is called Père Fouettard, Father Scourger, and believed to have been a medieval innkeeper and butcher who served his guests with kids he had personally butchered and prepared.
However, the traits of these horrific creatures have mellowed over time and their sacks nowadays generally contain sweets and presents. They are in the Czech Republic matched not only by Čert, but also by one of Barbora´s/Perchta's companions. On the seventh of December, on St. Ambrose's day, a man appears dressed in a long, white shirt and a black pointed hat. With a veil in front of his face, a paper-covered broom in one hand and a candy bag in the other, he chases children around churches while "dropping" sweets on the ground. If someone dares to pick up the sweets s/he receives a blow with the broom.
Sankt Ambrose's equipment is reminiscent of the vestments penitents, apostates and heretics were forced to be dressed in before they were executed during the notorious autos-da-fé staged by the Spanish Inquisition. On their white, long shirts pictures had painted depicting punishments these sinners would suffer in Hell. The pointed hats seemed to imply they were penitents visibly suffering for their sins.
Similar hats are still worn by masked penitents who partake in Easter processions in Spanish and Italian towns and cities. It is no coincidence that they are reminiscent of the Ku Klux Klan's attire, this insane organization was established to terrorize blacks, Jews and Catholics. The clan members' equipment was clearly intended to, among other things, mock Catholic customs.
What fascinated me most about St. Ambrose's attire was that it made me think of St. Lucia's followers during the processions that are staged in every school and town in Sweden. This luminous personage with her white-clad bridesmaids and male companions with long pointed hats seem to have a connection with similar, continental processions, this while several peculiarities like the Lusse Cat Buns distributed by her and the candle wreath worn by Lucia remind of the Norse fertility goddess Freyja, who was connected with light and had the cat as her sacred animal. However, who are these Star Boys with their pointed hats? It is has been said that the hats indicate the three Magi, coming ”from the East” to worship the ”king of the Jews” (Matthew 2:1-12). It is very possible, but after being immersed in all these myths about the midwinter creatures I wished to learn something more about pointed hats as well, particularily since they appear to have several ancient connections to magic and power.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004914-5a6f05a6f3/Beskow stjärngossar (2).JPG)
When, during my return trip from Prague, I made a few days stopover in Berlin to visit my youngest daughter, we made frequent museum visits. Among other things, we visited the collections at the Museum Insel. There I was confronted with depictions of pointed hats from differnt times and cultures. Most impressive of them all is a 75 cms high pointed hat crafted in gold sometime between 1000 and 800 years BC. It is one of three found in different sites in Germany, while another was found outside of Poitiers in France. Everything indicates that such artifacts have been common in other places as well. Apart from those gold hats, which obviously were too heavy and cumbersome to be worn as headgear, bronze-age gods and princes were obviously wearing pointed hats. It has been speculated that the striking gold hats, with their sophisticated symbols and patterns, may have had something to do with solstices.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004919-1436414366/Berliner_Goldhut (2).jpg)
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004920-0b8e50b8e7/tyska struthattsidoler.jpg)
It is quite possible that this may have been the case, however, one thing is certain and that is that such hats have been and still are of great importance in the most diverse cultures. Like a masque, a hat may change, cover and make a person visible. Among other things, I think of the expression that in recent years has become increasingly annoying during all kinds of official meetings: "Today I wear a different hat and represent ...". As soon as I hear that silly expression, it gives me the willies, just like the equally ridiculous saying "think outside of the box", generally uttered by people who do not do that.
A hat often represents something magical, something greater than the individual who wears it. If someone puts on Che Guevara's beret, Sandino´s or Bhagat Singh's hats, Arafat's keffiyeh, the French revolutionaries Phrygian Cap hat or feminists´ Pussy Hat, they make a statement, while the headgear transforms the bearer into something beyond her/his everyday existence. Similarly, when an English judge pronounced a death sentence he transformed himself into a higher, impersonal authority by putting on a black cap.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004917-2f5a52f5a8/döds straff domare (2).jpg)
The typical symbol of a hat's magical, transformative qualities is otherwise the pointed hat of magicians, skillfully portrayed in the symphonic poem by Paul Dukas, which the DisneyCompany dramatized in Fantasia, while turning it into one of its brands.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004918-2c7d52c7d8/Disney Sorcerer´s hat (2).jpg)
Pointed hats make their bearers visible from a long distance and seem to have been an important sign of divinity, like the Phoenician god Baal who on statuettes generally is presented with a gilded pointed hat.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/system_preview_detail_200004921-5d3875d38a/fenisiska struthattar.jpg)
The Egyptian Pharaohs whom people worshiped as gods, wore pointed hats when they performed their official duties.
![](https://0c530c5e4e.clvaw-cdnwnd.com/6532166fdebd83f118128e499785abeb/200004922-b3474b3477/Egyptian conehat (2).jpg)
Christian popes also wore pointed hats and it has been said that this custom originated among bishops of Syrian Christians, who were inspired by the headgear of the Zoroastrian clergy, often called Magi. These priests had, in turn, inherited the tradition from Central Asian Scythian horsemen who lived on the steppes stretching from present Ukraine to the Altai mountains. The Scyths were well known in Europe at the time, their raids could reach as far as Denmark.
Thanks to the permafrost, no fewer than 140 unusually well preserved Scythian tombs have been found and their human remains were covered in magnificent costumes, often combined with huge pointed hats. What is particularly interesting with these stately burials is that one-fifth of them belonged to fully armed women who apparently were buried with the same honours as men. This might be an indication of some truth behind ancient Greek sources describing Scythian female warriors as Amazons. Several of these women also wore pointed hats.
During the European Gothic era, pointed hats were the high fashion among noblewomen and they were also used by the clergy, like the prominent theologian John Duns Scotus, who assumed that the "airy form" of a pointed hat stimulated his thinking. Unfortunately, his affection for pointed hats provided the name for the Dunce Cap, which was placed on the heads of failed or noisy students, who were forced to wear it as punishment for their mistakes and misdeeds.
These dunce caps might just as well find their origin in the capirote worn by Spanish penitents or the pointed hats that Jews were forced to wear during the Middle Ages, as evidence that they did not accept the Christian faith. The mix of heresy with magical knowledge is probably one of the reasons to why the pointed hat has become a hallmark of witches from the Anglo-Saxon cultural context.
By following the track of pointed hats we have thus once more ended up in the company of feared female beings, whose power was manifested during Central European mid-winter rituals. They have often been identified as witches. These ladies were generally imagined as being old hags, a denomination originating from the Old High German word hagzusa, which may have to do with the word "hedge", i.e. a border designation. Just like the Czech demon Čert's name probably meant "to draw a line", the hag could thus be considered as a liminal creature, existing close to the border line between life and death.
The origin of the word witch is easier to trace. It also comes from an Old High German word – halja-wītjan a combination of Hel, the ancient German Hell, and wītjan ”to know”, ”to understand” and a witch could thus be "someone who knows the realm of death". Witches are always women and as such, they are associated with infant mortality and missing children, and thus also assumed to be some kind of female cannibals or vampires.
However, this nasty aspect of the witch has been mitigated within specific cultural contexts. For example, in Italy, a witch called La Befana appears on the fifth of January (The Thirteenth- or Revelation Day) and brings with her gifts for the children. Legends told about Befana seem to associate her with the myths about child-killing witches. According to these stories, La Bafana turned into a child-snatcher after her only child had died. When she learned that God´s son was going to be born in Bethlehem she went there with the intention of killing him. But when La Befana saw the newborn baby she was overwhelmed by the beauty and grace he radiated and brought him a gift instead of harming him. As a token of gratitude, the little child declared that La Befana would henceforth become like a mother to every Italian child.
Now, after I have returned after my trips to Prague and Berlin and after writing about the intricacies of Czech Advent rites, I watched the horror movie La Llorona, The Weeping Lady, which is based on a well-known Mexican legend about a child-snatching ghost.
A woman who was madly in love with her husband suffered since he loved their sons even more than he loved her. When she eventually surprised her husband in flagrante with a mistress of his, she became deranged by anger and despair and drowned her sons in a river. If she was not able to retrieve the souls of her murdered sons she would not obtain any absolution from God and is now doomed to wander between Heaven and Hell. Accordingly, La Lorona now walksth rough Mexico's cities and villages, constantly crying while she snatches children from their cribs and beds to drown them in rivers and other watercourses. Like Barbora and Frau Perchta, La Llorona is white-clothed and usually covers her face.
However, La Llorona is probably far apart from her European relatives. It is nevertheless possible that this child-murdering ghost has been created from beliefs brought across the sea from the east, though I would believe that she is even more closely related Cihuacōātl, the Aztec goddess of fertility and motherhood. Although sometimes portrayed as a young woman, Cihuacōātl was more often portrayed as a tough, old woman armed with spear and shield. Giving birth was among the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica compared to warfare and women who died in childbirth were honoured as fallen warriors. But like her European equivalents, Cihuacōātl was also portrayed as a child snatcher, who haunted crossroads, or during nights sneaked into houses to steal children.
Likewise, the ancient, female, Mesopotamian night-demon Lilith stole infants from despairing mothers. In time, Lilith entered Jewish mythology and thus reached Europe, joining ranks with other witches.
Comparing customs and customs in different cultural contexts is a difficult and maybe even a futile occupation, though it cannot be denied that child mortality has been and is still a horrible reality in many parts of the world and every birth tend to be a painful and dangerous process taking place at the threshold between life and death. This has been the case during millennia and it is therefore not strange that every culture has invented protective and threatening spirit creatures believed to exist in the borderland between life and death, threatening us, but maybe also being capable of helping and protecting us.
My erratic journey that began with surgical masks as protection against a life-threatening influenza epidemy has now ended among murderous witches. Maybe it was all the time about the same thing – about protecting us from, enchanting and understanding dangers threatening us and loved ones.
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När jag för någon vecka sedan lämnade Rom fann jag att de flesta bland flygplatspersonalen var försedda med så kallade kirurgmasker, säkerligen för att skydda sig mot det fruktade coronaviruset. Väl inne i planet slumrade jag till. Vet inte varför, men innan ett plan är på väg att lyfta blir jag av någon anledning sömnig. Det händer ofta att då vi finner oss högt upp i luften jag rycker till och vaknar efter att ha somnat och börjat drömma.
Då jag innan avgång blundade såg jag framför mig Richard Princes suggestiva målning av en sjuksköterska försedd med munskydd. Målningen oroar med sin svarta bakgrund och dess rinnande färg fick mig att tänka på Francis Bacons vrålande påvar, inneslutna i sin absurda maktuövning.
Munskyddet gör Princes sjuksköterska anonym, nästan hotfull; som en maskerad brottsling och genom den vita inskriptionen bakom henne – Hurricane Nurse framstår hon som än mer skräckinjagande, en slags kvinnlig, naturkraft vi inte kan undfly.
Varför kallade Prince henne för Orkansköterska? Richard Prince har gjort sig känd för att i sin konst använda sig av kommersiella myter, som den så kallade Marlboromannen, en virilt hårdför, storrökande cowboy och jag misstänker att orkansköterskan tillhör samma genre, men då som en kvinnlig motsvarighet till super machon The Marlboro Man. En handlingskraftig och samtidigt sexuellt åtråvärd yrkeskvinna.
Det skulle inte förvåna mig om Prince inpirerats av Peggy Gaddis (1895-1965) som under flera år en gång i månaden skrev så kallade sjuksköterskeromanser, bland annat en roman som hette just Hurricane Nurse. Jag är fascinerad av dessa förrfattare av kiosklitteratur. Deras förvånande kapacitet är något jag kan identifiera mig medan jag skriver mina omfattande bloggar, som inte läses av så värst många. Jag ser det som en drift, helt i enlighet med Peggy Gaddis konstaterande: It's a sort of drug, for which I hope no one ever finds a cure, “det är en sorts drog som jag hoppas ingen någonsin kommer att finna ett botemedel för”.
Jag har inte läst något av Peggy Gaddis, men antar att hennes sköterskeböcker var betydligt mer pikanta än de som Helen Wells (1910-1986) skrev om sjuksköterskan Cherry Ames ytterst platoniska förhållanden till diverse stiliga, beundransvärda män i vitt. Till skillnad från Peggy Gaddis vände sig inte Wells till en vuxen publik utan till flickor som på den tiden inte fick utsättas för en alltför rå verklighet. Genom hela sin karriär inom alla upptänkliga yrkesroller för sköterskor var Cherry Ames en oklanderlig förebild för alla utövare av hennes kall; effektiv, vacker och trots sin fallenhet för romantiska episoder med attraktiva, manliga överordnade förblev hon i alla romaner singel.
Förutom från att klanderfritt sköta sitt arbete låter Hellen Wells sin hjältinna lösa en mängd brottsfall. Författarinnans uppenbara syfte var att på ett underhållande sätt stimulera flickor till att bli yrkesskickliga, kyska och självständiga sjuksköterskor.
Min yngsta syster, som jag förmodar läste hela Cherry Ames-serien, blev faktiskt sjuksköterska och jag tror hon trivdes med sitt yrkesval. Jag försökte mig på en eller två av de där gulryggade ”flickböckerna” om den rekordeliga sjuksköterskan. På den tiden läste jag fullständigt hämningslöst allt möjligt som jag kunde hitta i vår lägenhet, och mycket annat dessutom. Cherry Ames var dock inte riktigt i min smak. Alltför mycket svärmeri och godhjärtad präktighet. Och hur kunde förresten en så samvetsgrann och skicklig person som Cherry Ames byta jobb hela tiden? Romantitlarna vittnade om att Cherry Ames hade varit fält-, flyg-, över-, privat-, fartygs-, mottagnings-, vilohems-, ödemarks-, missions-, avdelnings-, natt-, skol-, poliklinik-, varuhus-, sommarläger-, hotellsköterska och jag vet inte vad. Blev hon ständigt avskedad? Jag läste väl en eller två Cherry Ames-böcker och gick sedan över till Biggles och Hjortfot, de där ”pojkböckerna” var säkerligen inte mer välskrivna. De var betydligt mer fördomsfulla, men inte desto mer spännande för en äventyrssugen liten kille som jag.
Efter ha slumrat mellan dröm och vaka kvicknade jag till då planet nått sin normala flyghöjd och det var fritt fram att lossa säkerhetsbältet och röra sig i planet Jag fann att det gick att ansluta sig till intranätet och eftersom jag hade mer svängrum än vanligt, efter att ha haft turen av att det inte fanns någon som tog upp sätet bredvid mig, rotade jag fram datorn och började surfa. Jag ville veta mer om coronaviruset och vad jag fann var fascinerande. Den mikroskopiska värld som virus är en del av är lika märkvärdig och ytterst obegriplig som alla andra fenomen i Universum. Dess blotta existens överstiger kapaciteten för ramarna för vårt ack så begränsade mänskliga tänkande, instängt som det är inom begrepp som ”hur?” och ”varför?”.
Det sägs att ett virus inte är en livsform, eftersom det saknar egen ämnesomsättning och är oförmöget att föröka sig på egen hand. Men, det lever i meningen att det har en ”drift” att fortplanta sig och kan därigenom beskrivas som ”ett mellanting” mellan levande och död materia. Virus fortplantar sig genom att invadera levande celler och med hjälp av deras funktioner skapar de nya viruspartiklar.
Som hos ”levande” organismer finns det en mängd ”arter”, eller former, av virus av vilka minst sexhundra ”lever” genom att infektera människor. Deras existens är beroende av vårt elände. Liksom vi människor är de parasiter som utnyttjar, skadar och ofta förstör andra livsformer. Virushärjningar orsakar en mängd olika fenomen, en del är våldsamt fruktade, andra betraktas som tämligen harmlösa, men samtliga virusinfektioner kan ha en dödlig utgång och det finns inget botemedel mot dem, fast det går att vaccinera sig mot en del av dem. Några exempel på de sjukdomar de orsakar är förkylning, herpes, bältros, hjärninflammation, mässling, påssjuka, röda hund, polio, rabies, ebola, HIV/AIDS och influensa.
Varje år färdas influensavirus genom världen och smittar allvarligt mellan tre och fem miljoner människor, av vilka mellan 290 000 och 650 000 dör. Detta utgör en del av vår mänskliga existens och skapar sällan sådan panik som då ”nya” virusfomer gör sin éntre, som då SARS dök upp i Kina år 2002 och över världen infekterade 8 098 människor av vilka 774 dog. Mindre välkänt är MERS som 2012 framträdde i Mellanöstern, smittade 2 494 människor och dödade 858. SARS spreds antagligen från fladdermöss till civetkattor och från dem till människor, medan det var dromedarer som förde över MERS.
Munskydden som bars på flyplatsen i Rom var avsedda att skydda folk från Wuhan-coronaviruset som den 31 december 2019 upptäcktes i miljonstaden Wuhan och spårades till dess marknader. I skrivande stund vet man inte helt säkert från vilket djur viruset har förflyttat sig till människor, men de som främst misstänks har kommit från marknadernas viltförsäljare. Något som efter efter min tid i Hanoi vid 1990-talets början inte alls förvånar mig. På den tiden kunde man på stadens restauranger finna en avdelning som ibland skrevs på franska – de la forêt, ”från skogen” och som erbjöd rätter tillagade på diverse exotiska djur. Jag och min gode vän Svante Kilander, som på den tiden var ambassadsekreterare, övervägde ofta om vi skulle beställa in en myrkotte, pangolin. Skämtsamt undrade vi om man åt djurets fjäll som kronbladen på en kronärtskocka. Vi åt dock aldrig någon pangolin.
Levande och slaktade hundar, pangoliner, ormar, apor och andra djur såldes också på den stora Dong Xuan markanden som brann ner 1994, året efter det att vi lämnat Vietnam.
Jag läste för några dagar sedan att pangolinen nu är den främste misstänkte då det gäller överföringen av Wuhan corona viruset. En av orsakerna till virusets spridning kan vara att någon pangolinslaktares händer efter att varit i kontakt med det stackars djurets kött har överfört smittan till andra människor. Viruset sprider sig nu genom direkt hudkontakt eller genom att vi träffas av viruspartiklar som i form av mikroskopiska droppar sprider sig då en smittad person hostar. Virus kan dock inte färdas genom luften längre än en meter.
Som namnet säger är Wuhan-coronavirus, likt SARS och MERS, ett coronavirus. Namnet härstammar från latinets ord för ”krona” och kommer sig av att om viruset betraktas genom ett elektronmikroskop ser det ut som om det likt solen är omgivet av en korona, som i själva verket består av något som kan liknas vid taggar som gör att viruset kan kopplas ihop med den cell som den avser att infektera.
Likt andra otrevliga virus, som HIV/AIDS och ebola, är coronavirus ett retrovirus. Det innebär att virusets RNAmolekyl, som är enkelsträngad, det vill säga att den enbart har en kedja till skillnad från DNA som är dubbelsträngad (dubbelhelix), kopplar ihop sig med den angripna cellens DNAkedjor och därigenom själv förvandlas till ett DNA och kan påverka cellens informationsflöde som i sin tur skapar skadliga proteiner. Under ”normala” förhållanden är det DNA som använder RNA som ”budbärare” mellan arvsanlagen (generna) varigenom det skapas proteiner som kodar den ärftliga information som finns lagrad i varje organism. Det förrädiska retroviruset använder alltså sitt RNA för att koda DNA, istället för tvärtom, det är därför det kallas retrovirus, tvärtomvirus.
Jag är i allra högsta grad en amatör då det gäller att begripa och beskriva detta märkliga mikrokosmos och det kan därför vara så att jag fått hela processen om bakfoten, men det hindrar dock inte att att jag fascineras av hur dessa skeenden inom ett mikrokosmos kan få så oerhörda konsekvenser inom vår mänskliga dimension av tillvaron.
En aktuell källa till oro är att Wuhanviruset redan efter lite mer än en månad har visat sig vara dödligare än både SARS och MERS och det påverkar redan nu Kinas ekonomi. I skrivande stund, den sjuttonde februari, har 71 429 fall konstaterats. I Kina har 1772 människor dött genom viruset, som nu spritt sig till 25 andra länder där det än så länge enbart har orsakat tre dödsfall.
Världen över fruktar nu människor att Wuhanviruset kan utveckla sig till en epidemi likt den dödligaste influensaepidemin någonsin – Den Spanska Sjukan som gastkramade världen under det Första Världskrigets slutskede och några av de följande åren. Den dödade min farfar 1918, gjorde min far faderslös vid ett års ålder och tvingade honom, hans mor och fyra syskon att under många år leva i svår fattigdom. Folk var försvagade efter krig och vedermödor och tätt sammanslutna grupper av människor i skyttegravar, på kompanier, eller under trupptransporter gjorde att viruset snabbt fick ett säkert fäste och genom de nya, förbättrade kommunikationsmedlen kunde spridas överallt. Spanien var inte speciellt hårt drabbat, men eftersom landet inte deltog i kriget och hade bättre hälsokontroll än de flesta andra nationer kunde man där konstatera virusets existens och vidtaga åtgärder, därav kom sig namnet Spanska sjukan.
Pandemin härjade som värst mellan mars 1918 och juni 1920 och nådde då såväl Inuit i Arktis som polynesier i Stilla Havet. Spanska sjukan var den pandemi som på kortast tid skördat flest människoliv. Under tjugofem månader dödade den mellan 50 och 100 miljoner människor, dvs. tre till sex procent av världsbefolkningen. Uppskattningsvis infekterades 500 miljoner, vilket motsvarade en tredjedel av alla människor. Av dem som fick diagnosen dog minst 2,5 procent, vilket kan jämföras med normala influensaepidemier under vilka högst 0,1 procent dör. I Sverige dog uppskattningsvis 38 000 personer.
På bilder från den tiden ser vi att sjukvårdpersonal precis som nu bar munskydd, men hur effektiva är de egentligen? WHO, FNs Världshälsoorganisation konstaterar att användandet av munskydd inte är en garanti mot smittan. De tunna ”kirurgmasker” som är vanligast förekommande är egentligen framställda för att hålla borta smittämnen från kirurgens näsa och mun från det område hon/han opererar och inte designade för att hålla borta viruspartiklar. De kan likväl utgöra ett visst skydd, men de sluter inte tätt och lämnar ögon och andra delar av kroppen oskyddade, dessutom måste munskydden efter en dags användning desinficeras, eller slängas. Wuhanviruset har också vissa egenskaper som gör det svårkontrollerat. Till skillnad från SARS och ebola, som är smittsamma enbart efter det att symptomen på en infektion har visat sig, så kan wuhanviruset tydligen vara vilande inom en smittad person i upptill fjorton dagar och kan då likväl spridas inte enbart genom snuva och nysningar, utan också genom beröring, tal och andning, dock enbart inom en meters omkrets. Om en person bär ett munskydd kan det likväl hända att smittan sprider sig på annat sätt än genom luften, exempelvis om hans/hennes händer har kommit i kontakt med osynliga virusdroppar. Även om huden varit skyddad kan smittan spridas om händerna vidrör naken hud, exempelvis i ansiktet. Under en timmes tid rör en person sitt ansikte med händerna i genomsnitt 23 gånger. Viktigare är att bära munskydd är därför att så ofta som möjligt tvätta händerna och hålla sig på avstånd från smittade personer.
Virussjukdomar går alltså i allmänhet inte att bota, men då de spridit sig i breda befolkningslager tunnas deras angreppsförmåga ut och folk bygger upp immunförsvar. Viruset lever dock oftast kvar, och blir endemiskt dvs. begränsas inom en befolkningsgrupp. Detta innebär att kontakten med folk som inte tidigare drabbats av en epidemisk sjukdom kan bli fullkomligt förödande. Visserligen spreds Digerdöden, som vid mitten av 1300-talet dödade mellan trettio och åttio procent av Europas befolkning av den orientaliska råttloppan (Xenopsylla cheopis) som levde av blodet från svartråtto. Allt tyder dock på att pestens spridning blev förödande denom den Gyllene Hordens, dvs. mongolernas, attacker på kinesernas riken under 1330-talet, då böldpesten under tre års tid decimerade Hebeiprovinsens befolkning med nittio procent. Fem miljoner människor dog. Pesten spred sig sedan över hela Asien. nästan samtidigt med mongolernas frammarsch och de enorma folkomflyttningar orsakade. Böldpesten nådde Europa med genovesiska galärer som 1347 anlände till Italien från hamnstaden Kaffa på Krimhalvön, som blivit intagen och plundrad av den Gyllene Horden.
Än mer förödande än Digerdöden blev de epidemier som européer och afrikaner, tillsammans med kor, grisar och höns, efter 1492 förde till Amerika. Miljontals människor dukade under genom virussjukdomar som gula febern, influensa, smittkoppor, vattkoppor och hepatit. Oftast var effekten syndemisk, det vill säga att en mängd sjukdomar samverkade för att infektera och döda människor, men det hände också att en sjukdom kunde ta överhanden. Exempelvis så dödade bakteriesjukdomen salmonella mellan 1545 och 1548 åttio procent av Mexikos befolkning, som redan då hade decimerats av syndemiska epidemier. Mellan 1575 och 1590 kom salmonellan tillbaka till Mexiko och dödade då hälften av dem som klarat sig undan dess första angrepp.
Under 1600-talet dödade smittkoppor på sina håll 80 procent av ursprungsbefolkningen i Nordamerka och mellan 1600 och 1650 decimerade malariaparasiter som förts dit av slavar från Afrika stora befolkningsgrupper i Sydamerika. Vad som gjorde förhållandena i Amerika unika var att ursprungsbefolkningen sällan återhämtade sig från de dödliga epidemierna. I Europa fick exempelvis ekonomin och folkhälsan i allmänhet ett uppsving efter de dödliga pandemiernas härjningar – den minskade arbetskraftstillgången gjorde att bönder och arbetare behandlades bättre och chockverkan av massdöden gjorde att folk blev mer benägna att samarbeta och därmed göra livet drägligare för alla. I Amerika fortsatte dock ursprungsbefolkningen och importerade slavar att behandlas hänsynslöst och deras antal decimerades ytterligare genom medveten utrotning och omänskligt förtryck.
Hemsökelser som den Justinianska pesten, som mellan 541 och 542 dödade uppskattningsvis mellan 25 till 50 miljoner människor, Digerdöden med sina 75 till 200 miljoner offer och den så kallade Tredje panepidemin som vid mitten av 1800-talet dödade minst tolv miljoner i Kina och Indien, var samliga en form av böldpest som orsakades av bakterien Yersinia pestis, som likt influensan spreds genom nysningar, något som gjorde att de flesta trodde att sjukdomen bars av infekterad luft, miasma. Ett sätt att skydda sig mot skämd luft var därför att bära mask framför näsa och mun. Ett inslag i karnevaler har ofta varit masker inspirerade av de som bars under pestepidimier, exempelvis den venetianska mask som kallas Il Dottore.
Pest, masker och karneval har av Edgar Allan Poe skildrats i novellen The Masque of the Red Death, i vilken Furst Prospero försöker undkomma en pest känd som Den Röda Döden. Tillsammans med vänner och förtrogna håller han sig dold i ett kloster. En natt arrangerar den förmögne fursten i sju av klostrets salar en ståtlig maskeradbal. Varje sal är dekorerad i en speciell färg. Under festligheterna dyker en mystisk, sårbemängd gestalt upp. Framför ansiktet bär den objudne gästen en mask som liknar att förruttnat, pestbesmittat ansikte. Den kusliga gestalten skrider sakta fram och tillbaka från rum till rum och lägger därmed sordin på den backanaliska stämningen. Prospero blir rasande över detta attentat mot hans så omsorgsfullt planerade fest och vrålar : ”Vem dristar sig att förolämpa oss med detta blasfemiska hån? Hejda honom, slit masken av honom – så vi får se vems döda kropp som vid soluppgången skall dingla från murkrönet.” Då ingen av gästerna vågar lyfta handen mot den kusliga gestalten som obesvärat glider från rum till rum, sliter den ursinnige fursten en dolk från sitt bälte och med vapnet lyftat till hugg rusar han efter den objudne gästen, som inkommen i det azurblå rummet sakta vänder sig om, möter angriparens blick och får honom att vridande sig i svåra plågor falla till golvet. Efter att ha hämtat sig från chocken kastar sig flera av maskeradgästerna över den kusliga uppenbarelsen, som nu nått det svarta rummet och bredvid ett stort väggur vänt sig ut mot salen. Medan klockan slår sina dova slag finner de män som försökt gripa fantomen att de enbart greppar tomma luften. Alla klostrets ljus slocknar, en kylig vind drar genom salarna och samtliga invånare och besökare faller döda mot marmorgolven.
Maskspel och konstlad uppsluppenhet kan inte skyla över dödens obevekliga närvaro. En insikt som kraftfullt poängterades under Digerdödens efterdyningar, då kyrkor och palats fylldes med framställningar av dödsdanser och Dödens Triumf. Man både förskräcktes av och lekte med döden, som i de venetianska Commedia dell´arteförställningar där Il Dottoremasken fann sitt ursprung.
Doktorsmasken var inspirerad av en fransk standardmask, som den man ser på ett berömt romerskt kopparstick från 1656. Klädseln och masken utformades av Ludvig den XIII:s livläkare, Charles de Lorme (1584-1678). Denna skyddsklädsel spred sig snart bland pestdoktorer över hela Europa.
Utstyrseln baserade sig på teorier om att det var miasma, dålig, skämd luft (mala aria) som spred pesten. Det gällde att skydda hela kroppen, och speciellt andningsorganen, från dess skadliga inverkan. Pestmaskens långa ”näbb” fylldes med aromatiska örter avsedda att hålla odören från dålig luft borta och även rena den. Den heltäckande klädseln kunde faktiskt skydda bäraren från virusbärande luftpartiklar och pestspridande ohyra. Det var int förrän 1895 som man fann att pesten fann sitt ursprung hos en loppa och att maria spreds av en mygga.
Pestdoktorernas groteska uppenbarelser blev till skräckinjagande och påtagliga bevis på dödens närvaro och blev i Europa en del av maskspel, upptåg och ceremonier som påminde om ”livets korthet, dödens visshet och evighetens längd”.
Givetvis kopplades sjukdom, död, pest och lidande inte enbart ihop med miasman, den förpestade luften, utan betraktades också som Guds straff för såväl begångna synder som ett fortsatt oföbätterligt leende. På ett liknande sätt som man ville rensa och utestänga oren luft gällde det nu att befria samhällskroppen från dåligt, syndigt inflytande – olydiga barns beteenden, lata människor, främlingar med okända/onormala seder och bruk, kort sagt all avvikelse från gängse normer. Skrämsel och kränkningar var vapen som användes inom botgörings- och reningsprocesser, samtidigt som straff, skräck och hot lättades upp med skämt och karnevalsstämningar.
Uppfylld av sådana tankar steg jag ur planet i Prag och tog tåget hem till min äldsta dotters familj. På natten, då de andra gått och lagt sig, talade jag och min dotter om masker, skräck och folkliga traditioner. Hon föreslog att vi skulle besöka Prags museum för folkkultur och där betrakta dräkter och masker från tämligen skräckinjagande tjeckiska folkfester. Janna hade kommit att tänka på tjeckiskt adventsfirande då byar och städer förr i tiden, och på vissa ställen även nu, fylldes med människor i skräckinjagande utstyrslar. Inte minst de barborkas som dök upp på Sankta Barboras dag den fjärde december. Kunde deras klädsel ha ett samband med såväl luciafirande som pest?
Barfota kvinnor klädda i vita särkar, ofta beväpnade med såväl långa knivar som risknippen gick inte kring påmgatorna i städer och byar enbart under barboradagen utan ofta under veckorna före jul från hus till hus. En del bar då långa strutar framför sina ansikten, andra dolde dem med slöjor och nerhängande hår. För att mildra det skrämmande intrycket bar de även med sig korgar fyllda med frukter och sötsaker.
Då jag berättat om mina tankar kring munskydd och pestmasker visade Janna mig bilder på de långa strutar som barborkas dolde sina ansikten med. De påminde onekligen om pestdoktorernas masker. Och verkligen – då vi letade fram äldre framställningar av barborkas fann vi att en del av dem bar sådana masker. Fanns det ett samband? Kanske, kanske inte – de där maskerna kunde lika gärna anspela på fåglar, möjligen storkar, ett intryck som styrktes av att en del barborkas framställdes med fågelklor istället för händer, ofta hade också deras ena fot formen av en fågelklo.
Storken och andra vattendjur är ofta fruktbarhetssymboler, något som kanske kunde sättas i samband med korgarna med frukt och grönsaker? Och varför var det enbart kvinnor som klädde ut sig till baborkas? Varför var de hotfulla? Varför bar de spöknippen och knivar? Varför var de vitklädda? Varför dök de upp innan jul? Deras dräkter påminde även om de som botgörare bär under ståtliga påskprocessioner i Spanien och Italien, och även om Ku Klux Klans utstyrsel. Kunde de möjligen ha ett samband med de svenska luciatågen? Frågorna hopade sig och de förde mig snart in på spännande och oroande stickspår.
Födelse och död, sorg och glädje. Ensamhet och gemenskap. Svält och sjukdom. Årstidernas växlingar, naturens oförutsägbarhet. Det välbekanta och det okända. Allt sådant är närvarande under våra liv och var säkert än mer överskuggande för människor inneslutna av det forna bondesamhällets vardag och traditioner.
Vi besökte Národopisné muzeum, Prags etnografiska museum och möttes där av en värld präglad av en rik, vacker, roande, märklig och ibland makaber kultur. Elegant tillverkade arbetsredskap och vardagsföremål, överdådiga bröllopsutstyrslar, broderade dopklänningar och liktäcken, vittnade om att vi människor är utpräglade flockdjur. Vi har ett behov av att dela såväl vårt elände som vår lycka och bönderna gjorde det ofta genom stora och påkostade festligheter. Många av dem var inte exklusivt fokuserade på enskilda individers upplevelser, utan var kollektiva begivenheter som firade sådd och skörd, vinter- och sommarsolstånd, pingst, fastan, påsk och jul.
Gemensamma högtider – integrerade delar av en värld där fruktbarhet och sterilitet, födelse och död, var betydligt större realiteter än vad de är nu. Det var vanligt att betrakta svart och vitt, liv och död som motsatta sidor av samma mynt, något som med stor tydlighet framgår genom traditioner som upprätthållits i århundranden och som därmed gett intryck av ha varit såväl tids- som gränslösa. Skärskådar vi sådana riter och föreställningar finner vi lager efter lager av associationer och urgamla tankar kring hur världen är beskaffad och hur vi bör förhålla oss till den. .
Ytterst viktiga tidpunkter i bondekalendern var vinter- och sommarsolstånden. Ordet solstånd är besläktat med latinets solstitium, skapat av sol och sistere, ”stå still”. Folk tyckte att solen vid dessa tider på året hade stannat vid den norra -, respektive södra gränsen av sin himmelsväg, för att sedan ändra riktning. Solstånden var vändpunkter i både människors och naturens liv. De innebar möjlighten att på allvar fundera över vår tillvaro, vår stund på jorden. Detta gällde speciellt vid midvintersolståndet då marken låg kall och frusen. Himlen var mörk och stjärnbeströdd och jordbruksarbetet låg nere. Därmed gavs oss tid fundera över de brott och misstag vi begått och inse att vi bör ta till vara de möjligheter som finns i förlitan på Guds, eller gudarnas, nåd. Vi borde söka hjälp hos varandra, vår gemensamma förmåga att finna och följa den väg som leder till vårt eget och därmed även andras bästa.
Speciellt allvarligt var det eftersom dagen då solen stod stilla föregicks av en tid då onda krafter gjorde sig särskilt bemärkta. En tid av mörker, steriltet och död som krävde att de goda makterna måste fösäkra sig om herraväldet över jorden och människornas själar. Ondskan måste bestraffas och drivas bort, en kamp som människorna bidrog till genom att synliggöra såväl de onda, som de goda krafterna.
Det var nu som Luciatågen dök upp i Sverige och baborkas visade sig i Böhmen, det gamla namnet på Tjeckien. Fann dessa riter och processioner sitt ursprung i kristen tro? Hedrade de verkligen helgon som Sankta Lucia och Sankta Barbara? Knappast, de var snarare manifestationer, återsken, av uråldriga förställningar.
Canon Episcopi är en del av den medeltida kanoniska lagen, antagligen skriven någon gång under niohundratalet. Kring år 1140 blev den genom det så kallade Decretum Gratiani av påven antagen som en väsentlig del av den katolska dogman. Detta dekret spreds bland prästerskapet för att bli ett vapen mot allt som hotade Kyrkans makt. En handledning inte enbart i hur brott mot den kyrkliga ordningen skulle bestraffas, utan också hur de som begått onda eller allmänt störande gärningar skulle kunna visa ånger och bättra sig:
Biskoparna och deras präster bör på alla sätt göra en stor ansträngning för att så grundligt som möjligt inom sina församlingar utrota den skadliga spådomskonst och de magiska bruk som uppfunnits av Djävulen, och om de finner att någon man eller kvinna ägnar sig åt sådan brottslig verksamhet, så skall de med vanära fördriva dem från sina församlingar.
Det är hos Burchard (950 – 1025), biskop av av Worms, som vi finner de första skriftliga antydningarna om en mäktig och uppenbarligen internationell kult av en kvinnlig gudomlighet. Burchard skrev en kommentar till den text som sedermera skulle bli stadfäst som Canon Episcopi. I flera versioner av denna lag ingår Burchards iakttaglser som en del av lagtexten.
Har du trott att det finns någon kvinnlig varelse som den enfaldiga, vulgära hopen kallar Holda, som kan åstadkomma en viss sak och på så sätt få de som sålunda förletts av djävulen bli övertygade om vad de bör göra, nämligen att genom nödvändighet eller tvång tillsammans med en hord av demoner, som förvandlats till att likna kvinnor, under somliga, bestämda nätter tvingas rida på speciella vidunder för att därigenom räknas till deras skara? Om du har deltagit i denna form av vidskepelse blir du tvungen att under vissa fastställda helgdagar göra bot under ett helt år.
Tron på en i det närmaste allsmäktig kvinnlig gudomlighet, härskarinna över naturen; fruktbarhet, födelse och död, tycks under eviga tider ha utgjort en del av traditionellt tänkande, kanske är det en global företeelse. Likt naturen var denna gudomlighet bortom gott och ont. I själva verket innefattade hon i sin natur sådant vi uppfattar som skilda egenskaper, däribland liv och död. Denna moders- och dödsgudinna kunde uppenbara sig i en såväl skräckinjagande som välvillig skepnad. Mer än femhundra år efter biskop Burchard nämner Martin Luther Frau Hulde i en av sina kommentarer till Bibelns epistlar. Det tycks som om han beskriver en procession med utklädda deltagare:
Här kommer Frau Hulde med sina långa nos, som avslöjar hennes rätta natur, går omkring och ljuger, förnekar sin Gud, spökar ut sig i trasor och omgärdar sig med ett bröstpansar av halm för att sedan gå till verket och demonstrera sin hängivenhet genom att gnida på sin fiol.
I Tyskland berättas fortfarande historier om Frau Holle, en gammal käring som smyger omkring under nätterna och rycker täcket från sovande, lata flickor som plötsligt kan finna sig liggande nakna ute på gatan. Flitiga små flickor kan däremot belönas med en silverslant under kudden, eller genom att en slant faller ner i deras ämbar då de hämtar vatten. Frau Holle har nämligen med vatten att göra och i djupet av källor, brunnar och sjöar finns en väg in till hennes underbara trädgård där hon som en vitklädd äldre dam tar emot såväl snälla som stygga flickor, som hon sedan belönar eller bestraffar efter förtjänst.
Bröderna Grimm berättade en saga om henne. En änka hade två döttar, en egen dotter som hon liksom i de flesta sagor skämde bort och en styvdotter hon behandlade illa. Styvdottern fick dag ut och dag in sitta vid en brunn och spinna, men då hon stack sig på spinnrockens nål och gick bort till brunnen för att skölja den och sitt blodiga finger föll hon ner i brunnen. Istället för att drunkna fann hon sig dock på en blomsteräng. Då hon vandrat över den kom hon till en stuga omgiven av en prunkande trädgård. Därinne togs hon emot av en mild, liten gumma som tog henne i sin tjänst. Flickan vattnade trädgåerden och skakade sängkläderna. Då hon en gång talade om för den vänliga damen att hon trots all längtade tillbaka hem lät den välvilliga Frau Holle flickan återvända till styvmodern i vackra kläder och rikligt försedd med guldmynt. Då modern förstod vad som hänt slängde hon älsklingsdottern i brunnen. Även hon hamnade hos Frau Holle, men misskötte sig och tvingades återvända täckt av beck och träck.
Sagan är en variant av många som skildrar hur omnipotenta kvinnor förklädda som otäcka käringar testar hjältinnans vänlighet och duglighet och belönar henne om hon klarar prövningen. Frau Hulda är i Grimms berättelse både intagande och vänlig, men exempelvis i ryssen Alexander Afanasievs Vasilisa den Vackra är Frau Holles motsvarighet den fruktansvärda och anskrämliga häxan Baba Yaga. Bröderna Grimms sagor har också sina rysliga häxor, inte mindre skräckinjagande än Baba Yaga, exempelvis i sagan om Frau Trude.
En trotsig flicka söker sig mot sina föräldrars vilja till Frau Trudes hus djupt in i skogen, Hon inbillar sig att föräldrarna förbjudit henne att gå dit enbart för att det var farligt, men hon är inte rädd eftersom hon vet att den gamla damen ruvar på stora rikedomar. Frau Trude tar emot henne och frågar om flickan mött någon på vägen till hennes stuga. Flickan berättar sanningsenligt att hon sett en svart ryttare, en ”kolare” förklarar Trude, en grön ryttare, en ”jägare” säger Trude och slutligen en röd ryttare, en ”slaktare” enligt Frau Trude.
Likande ryttare förekommer i den ryska sagan Vasilisa den Vackra och där är de häxan Baba Yagas tjänare. En vit ryttare som är Dagen, en röd som är Solen och en svart som är Natten. I Grimms saga berättas också hur flickan kikade in genom fönstret till Frau Trudes stuga och fick se Djävulen sitta därinne. Då hon talat om vad hon sett blev Frau Trude förargad och förklarade att hon verkligen var Satan själv och förvandlade flickan till ett vedträ som hon kastade in i elden. ”Det värmer gott och stugan blev genast ljusare,” konstaterade häxan och sagan slutar därmed betydligt olyckligare än vad sagor brukar göra.
Barnarövare, nattvandrare, kannibaler och en mängd andra monster hemsöker europeiska sagor i alla upptänkliga former och storlekar. I tidiga mytologier dominerade kvinnliga monster, men med tiden ökade de manliga i antal och framträdande. På ett liknande sätt tog ett manligt återberättande av sagor och myter successivt över från kvinnliga traditionsbärare som varit fastare förankrade i det gamla bondesamhället, där männen arbetade på fält och i skogar, alltmedan kvinnorna hade huvudansvaret för barn och hem. De spann, skötte trädgårdarna, bakade och lagade mat. Aktiviteter kopplade till frukbarhet, närande verksamhet, fostran av barn, ansvar för sjuka och gamla och därmed också bevarandet av urgamla traditioner kopplade till kvinnliga väsen med ansvar för liv och död. Detta hävdar i varje fall Marina Warner i sina välskrivna och fascinerande studier av folkligt berättande: From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers och No Go the Bogeyman: Scaring, Lulling and Making Mock.
Många av de sagor som dessa bondkvinnor berättade handlade om farliga och ambivalenta gamla käringar. Vissa av dem kan ha bevarat drag från forntida, hedniska gudinnor, gestalter som Frau Holle och framför allt den ryska Baba Yaga kan möjligen tyda på sådant ursprung. Den slaviska häxan Baba Yaga, som hade en speciell aptit för barnhull, utvecklades efterhand till en en individuell figur, med sin stuga som röde sig på kycklingben och sitt ovanliga flygsätt. Hon färdades i en trämortel som hon styrde med mortelstöten, alltmedan hon med en kvast sopade igen spåren efter sig. Hon har hade klapprande tänder som lås för dörren, tak gjort av pannkakor och väggar av köttpajer. Men, Baba Yaga var inte enbart inkarmerad ondska utan också en listig dam som härskade över sol och vind, över årstidernas växlingar, liv och död. Liksom andra sagoväsen var hon en hamnskiftare och kunde anta formen av en katt eller en fågel. Skogens fåglar var hennes tjänare och även flera mäktiga män, som de tre ryttarna och den hisklige Koščéj den Odödlige, Dödsrikets härskare.
Den ene av bröderna Grimm, Jacob (1785-1863), var den som först insåg sambandet mellan sagornas häxor och traditioner, riter och föreställningar som sträckte sig långt bak i tiden och över gränser och kulturer. I sin Deutsche Myhologie vidgade han beskrivningar av mytologi från att i stort sett enbart ha ägnat sig åt gudarberättelser och etablerade religiösa dogmer. Jacobs och broderns studier av muntlig tradition hade fått honom att undersöka och jämföra seder och bruk med olika berättelser för att på så vis finna ursprunget till forntida ”germanskt” tänkande. Givetvis misstog han sig ofta då det gällde språkhistoria och skillnader präglade av olika tider och skilda kulturella sammanhang.
Jacob Grimms metoder blev dock ett viktigt bidrag till den spirande etnologiska vetenskapen. Konceptet etnologi hade etablerats genom den slovakiske juristen Adam Franz Kollárs epokgörande Tillämpningar av kungariket Ungerns historia och konstitutionella lag, postumt publicerad två år före Jacob Grimms födelse. I denna bok beskrev Kollár etnologi som:
vetenskapen om nationer och folk, eller lärda mäns studier varigenom de undersöker ursprunget, språken, sederna och institutionerna inom olika nationer, samt moderlandets forntida platser, för att därigenom bättre kunna förstå samtidens nationer och folk.
Så innan jag återvänder till de tjeckiska adventsriterna låt mig följa några tankar som finner sitt ursprung i Jacob Grimms teorier om Frau Holle. Han såg historierna kring henne som bevis för överlevandet av en forntida tro på en naturgudomlighet som sammanblandats med den romerska Diana och därefter med Jungfru Maria, Jesu moder och upprätthållare av världen.
Jacob Grimm sammanställer namnet Holle, med förställningar kring de fornnordiska huldrorna från vilka sagoväsendet ärvt en del kusliga drag, exempelvis som härskarinna över de dödas själar. Frau Holles rike under vattnet är ett slags Paradis, likt den medeltida Jungfru Marias rosenträdgård. Likt vissa katolska helgon och änglar rådde Holle över vädelreken, något som är avgörande för varje jordbrukare. Då flickan i sagan vattnar Holles trädgård regnar det på jorden och då hon skakar bolster och kuddar snöar det.
Holle är också kopplad till ”kvinnliga” sysslor, som spinnande och vävnad, precis som de fornordiska nornorna som spann människornas öden. I sagan om den ondskefulla Frau Trude har häxan dessutom makt över tre ryttare,som mycket väl kan vara identiska med ryttarna i sagorna om Baba Yaga och motsvara solen och dagarnas växlingar. Holle är en hamnskiftare och framstår såväl som ond som god, som ljus eller mörk, gammal eller ung. Hon är sinnebilden för en ständigt skiftande natur som kan vara såväl ill- som välvillig.
Ser vi till forntida slaviska föreställningar finner vi att de ofta var tvetydiga, bipolära. Chronica Sclavorum som skrevs vid slutet av elvahundratalet antyder att Svetovid, de slaviska wendernas högste gud hade två aspekter som dyrkades som gudar, Belobog, den Vite Guden, och Chernobog, den Svarte Guden. Detta är i mångt och mycket en teori i avsaknad av ovedersägliga belägg, men den speglar mycket av den dualitet som finns hos de gestalter som dyker upp under det tjeckiska adventsfirandet. Inte minst Sankta Barbora som förenar onda och goda aspekter hos en varelse som Frau Holle och kanske mest i hennes hotfulla framtoning som Frau Perchta.
Ordet perchta som senare kom att associeras med helgonet Sankta Bertha, eller mer korrekt Sankta Barbara, kommer från det forngermanska ordet perhat,” glänsande” eller ”ljust”. Något som kan ha samband med att Frau Perchtas uppdykande vid början av december, en antydan om ljusets återkomst efter vintersolståndet. I sin milda aspekt kan Perchta, liksom Frau Holle, framställas som krönt med en ljuskrona och det kan vara svårt att finna skillnaden mellan henne och vår svenska Lucia. Hon har liksom henne även ett brett, rött silkeband kring midjan.
Det är dock vanligare att sammanställa Frau Perchta med dödens blekhet. Vitt var fram till mitten av artonhundratalet dödens färg. Ett lik bleknar och både barn och gamla begravdes i vita kläder och oftast i vita kistor.
Frau Perchta bodde i botten av brunnar dit hon ofta lockade till sig barn som drunknade och liksom Frau Holle kallades Perchta ofta den Mörka Farmodern eller Vita Frun. Då hon stiger fram under Advent är det i allmänhet som en straffande gudom med ett följe av lika ondskefulla eller skräckinjagande varelser, som den fruktansvärde Krampus och barn som hon dödat.
Redan Luther nämnde att hon uppträdde omgjordad med halm, antagligen en antydan om hennes roll som fruktbarhetsgudinna och hon bär även med sig en korg med frukt och godsaker för att skänka till de kvinnor som flitigt spunnit tillräckligt med garn och barn som uppfört sig väl. Betydligt värre än så är dock hennes förskräckluga straff för de som brutit mot reglerna. Hon bär antingen ett risknippe, och än värre en skarpslipad kniv med vilken hon sprättar upp magen på latmaskar och lagöverträdare för att sedan fylla deras buk med halm.
I sin tjeckiska gestalt som Barbora, kan Frau Perchta uppträda som en gengångare med det stripiga håret hängande framför ansiktet och hon associeras då med en demon som under natten smyger sig in barnkammare för att döda, eller till och med äta spädbarn. Barnadödlighet var förr en både fruktad och vanlig hemsökelse och skylldes i allmänhet på överjordiska makter.
Sankta Barbora uppenbarar sig inte enbart som den otäcka Frau Perchta, vanligare är att barborkas visar sig med långa strutar framför ansiktet och ofta med ena foten i form av en fågelklo eller gåsfot. Därmed understryks Barboras karaktär av vattenvarelse. Vatten ses som upphov till all fruktbarhet och vattendjur som grodor och storkar uppfattades ofta som varelser som hade samband med barnfödande.
Redan under medltiden nämndes Frau Huldas följe av ”demoner”. Kanske en rest av de vilda jakter som Odin och allsköns otyg brukade ägna sig åt under vinterhalvåret då mörkrets makter krälade farm ur sina gömslen och hotade att ta över världen, om de inte hölls i schack av den mäktiga Naturgudinnan. Ondskans representanter kunde dock tillåtas att straffa barn och vuxna som brutit mot samhällsreglerna. Därmed kan till och med en så skräckinjagande gestalt som Krampus sägas vara de goda makternas tjänare. Han är ett ovanligt motbjudande, behornat monster, beskrivet som ”halvt get, halvt demon” men betydligt rysligare än så. Han namn härstammar från det forngermanska krampen som betyder ”klo”, eller ”krökt”, en antydan om hans rovdjursaktiga utesende och betende och det faktum att han är en abnormitet. Möjligen är Krampus besläktad med med den av Baba Yaga underställde Koščéj den Odödlige, en symbol för ett obehärskat driftsliv och dödens visshet.
I Tjeckien dyker Krampus också som följeslagare till Sankt Nikolaus då denne delar ut julklappar till barnen. Han kallas då ofta för Čert, ett ord som brukar översättas med "Djävulen". Men Čert är egentligen inte identisk med djävulen. Förvisso är han en demon, men ordet kommer uppenbarligen från čersti/čьrtǫ, vilket skulle betyda att ”dra en linje”, ”skapa en plogfåra” och Čert skulle då kunna anses vara en symbol för Döden och därmed en tjänare till Barbora/Frau Percha och deras kopplingar till födelse och död.
Kanske är den svenska julbocken ett återsken av den behornade Krampus/Čert. Julbocken kom liksom de med både gåvor och ris. En annan beröringspunkt kan vara halmens betydelse. Den svenska Julbockens mask var ofta gjord av halm och liksom Krampus/Čert var han ofta klädd i en svart päls.
I Finland har Julbocken, Joulupukki, blivit till Jultomtens följeslagare och kan då erinra om den kedjade Čert som följer Sankt Nikolaus under hans julbesök i hemmen. Att Sankt Nikolaus har en bock- eller djävulslik följeslagare är vanligt inom flera europeiska traditioner, fast i slavisk folklore är denne följslagare inte alltid demonisk, utan uppvisar samma tvetydiga egenskaper som Belobog och Chernobog.
Inom rysk folkkultur är Sankt Nikolaus ofta ersatt Ded Morooz, Fader Frost, som framställs som vitskäggig och mantelklädd, fast hans mantel är blå- eller isfärgad. Ded Moroz ursprung är antagligen en slavisk vintergud, eller ”vinterdemon”, som de kristna missionärerna betecknade honom som.
Ded Moroz följeslagare är inte en djävulsliknande varelse utan den vackra Snegurochka, Snöjungfrun. Hon tycks vara Baba Yaga i sin vackra gestalt, ty liksom Ded Moroz har Snegurochka en dubbelkaraktär. Hon kan vara både välvillig och ondskefull, När Ded Moroz inte kommer med gåvor kan han framstå som den sibiriska vinterkylan som fryser sina offer till döds. På samma sätt kan den iskalla Snegurochka vara vinterns härskarinna och genom sin köld döda människor. Då kallas hon Snödrottningen och har som sådan inspirerat H.C. Andersens saga med samma namn, som sedermera blev basen för Walt Disney Company´s succéfilm Frozen.
Inom tysk tradition är en ondskefull gestalt framträdande som Sankt Nikolaus följeslagare, men mer mänsklig än den djuriske Čert. Knecht Rupert har en svart eller brun mantel omgärdad med ett brett bälte. Han haltar på grund av någon barndomsskada. Legenden berättar att han var en föräldralös pojke som togs omhand av Sankt Nikolaus och sedan blev dennes vasall.
Knecht Rupert har en toppig mantelhuva och håller i handen ett risknippe som hanbestraffar elaka barn med. Han kan också slå dem med en säck fylld med aska, ofta klädd med bjällror. Har han en sådan säck kallas han Belsnickel. Säcken kan också vara tom och då använder Knecht Rupert den för att stoppa elaka barn i. Sedan bär han sin fyllda säck ner till en sjö där han dränker barnen.
I denna uppenbarelse påminner Knecht Rupert mig, som en göingepojke, om den fruktansvärde Låftamannen som Peps Perssson sjunger om:
På loftet sir hon bor där en man med skägg till knäna,
Hon sir att hon har sitt han ti't, när ingen har vatt med'na,
Går glöttarna på loftet och e di ente snälla,
Så tar han dom och sätter dom in i sin glöttafälla,
I norra Frankrike har Sankt Nikolaus en följeslagare som är likadant klädd som Knecht Rupert, men där kallas han Père Fouettard, Fader Gisslaren, och lär enligt traditionen ha varit en medeltida värdshusvärd och slaktare som till sina gäster serverade barn som han slaktat.
Alal dessa otäcka gestalter har dock med tiden mildrats och i sina säckar har de numera godsaker. De motsvaras i Tjekien inte enbart av Čert utan även av en av Barboras/Perchtas följeslagare. Den sjunde december, Sankt Ambrosius dag, klär sig en man i lång, vit skjorta och svart struthatt. Med en slöja framför ansiktet, med en pappersklädd kvast i ena handen och en godispåse i den andra jagar han barn kring kyrkor medan han under språngmarschen ”tappar” godsaker på marken. Om någon dristar sig att försöka plocka upp sötsakerna för hon/han ett slag med kvasten.
Sankt Ambrosius utrustning påminner om hur man klädde botgörare och sådana kättare som skulle brännas på bål under den Spanska Inkvisitionen. På de vita särkarna fanns då bilder på den bestrafning synndarna förvanmtades få i Helvetetet. Struthattarna tycktes antyda att de var botgörare som led för sina synder.
Liknande struta bärs av maskerade botgörare under påskprocessioner i spanska städer. Det är ingen slump att de påminner om Ku Klux Klans klädsel, denna vansinnesorganisation instiftades för att terrorisera svarta, judar och katoliker och klanmedlemmarnas utrustningen var bland annat avsedd som ett ett hån mot katolikerna.
Vad som fascinerade mig med Sankt Ambrosius klädsel och Barboras ansiktsstrutar var att de kom mig att tänka på Sankta Lucias följe. Denna ljusgetsalt och hennes vitklädda tärnor tycks ha ett samband med liknande följen på kontinenten och flera bruk, som exempelvis lussekattorna och ljuskronan, tycks ha ett samband med den nordiska fruktbarhetsgudinnan Freja. Men stjärngossarna? Det sägs ofta att deras struthattar har att samband med de tre vise männen, eller de ”österländska stjärntydarna” som det står i Bibeln. Det är mycket möjligt, men jag började likväl fundera över de där struthattarna.
Då jag under min tillbakaresa från Prag gjorde ett uppehåll i Berlin för att besöka min yngsta dotter, gjorde vi flitiga museibesök. Vi besökte bland annat samlingarna på Museum Insel och som jag hade stjärngossestrutar i huvudet dök det upp struthattar lite varstans. Mest imponerande av dem var givetvis den stora struthatten som tillverkats i guld någon gång mellan 1000 och 800 år f.Kr. Den är en av tre sådana man funnit på olika platser i Tyskland, ytterligare en blev funnen i närheten av den franska staden Poitiers. Allt tyder på att de även förekommit på andra platser. Bortsett från guldhattarna som uppenbarligen var för tunga att bäras som huvudbonad, så var bronsåldersgudar och furstar uppenbarligen försedda med struthattar även de. Det har spekulerats att de märkliga guldhattarna med sina sofistikerade tecken hade något med solstånden att göra.
Det är mycket möjligt att så kan vara fallet, en sak är dock säker och det är att hattar har haft och fortfarande har stor betydelse inom de mest skiftande kulturer. Likt en mask förändrar och synliggör även en hatt en människa. Jag tänker bland annat på uttrycket som under senare år blivit irriterande förekommande under allehanda officiella möten: ”Idag bär jag en annan hatt och representerar …”. Så fort jag hör det fåniga uttrycket kryper det i kroppen på mig, liksom det lika löjliga talesättet ”tänka utanför lådan”, som oftast ramlar ur munnen på sådana som inte alls gör det.
En hatt representerar ofta något magiskt, något förmer än den individuella människan. Sätter någon på sig Che Guevaras basker, Sandinos eller Bhagat Singhs hattar, Arafats keffiyeh, de franska revolutionärernas frygiska mössa eller feministernas Pussy Hat, så förvandlar sig hon/han till något bortom sitt vardagliga jag och gör därmed också ett ”politiskt ställningstagande”. Likaså förvandlade sig en engelsk domare till en högre, opersonlig auktoritet då han vid uttalandet av en dödsdom satte på sig en svart mössa.
Den typiska symbolen för hattens magiska, förvandlande egenskaper är annars trolkarlarnas toppiga hat, skickligt framställt i det symfoniska poemet av Paul Dukas, som Disney Studies sedan dramatiserade i Fantasia och förvandlade till ett av sina varumärken.
Struthattar gör sina bärare synliga från långt håll och tycks under århundraden ha varit tecken på gudomlighet, som den fenicisike guden Baal, som på en mängd stayetter framställts med en förgylld struthatt.
De egyptiska faraonerna var människor som dyrkades som gudar och de bar under sin ämbetsutövning struthattar.
Även de kristna påvarna bar struthatt. Det sägs att påvemitran fann sitt ursprung bland S yriens kristna som tagit över huvudbonaden från det zoroastriska prästerskapet, som i syn tur skall ha ärvt traditionen från de centralasiatiska skytiska ryttarfolken som levde på stäpperna som sträckte sig från nuvarande Ukraina till Altaibergen. De var på sin tid välkända i Europa och deras räder kunde nå ända upp till Danmark.
Tack vare permafrosten har man under de sista femtio åren funnit inte mindre än 140 ovanligt väbevarade skytiska gravar vars mänskliga rester varit klädda i magnifika dräkter, de flesta kombinerade med väldiga struthattar. Märkligt med dessa gravar är att en femtedel av dem tillhörde fullt beväpnade kvinnor som uppenbarligen begravts med samma hedersbetygelser som män, kanske ett bevis på att det legat en sanning bakom forntida grekiska källor som beskrivit skytiska kvinnliga krigare som amazoner. Även flera av dessa kvinnor bar struthattar.
Under Höggotiken bar adelskvinnor struthattar och den nyttjades även av den framträdande teologen John Duns Scotus som bedyrade att dess luftiga, uppriktade form befrämjade hans tankeverksamhet. Dessvärre gav hans speciella huvudbonad upphov till vad som på engelska kallas Dunce Cap, dumstrut, som misslyckade eller bråkande elever tvingades bära som straff för sina misstag och försyndelser.
Dessa duncehattar kunde lika gärna finna sitt ursprung i de capirote som spanska botgörare bar, eller de spetsiga hattar som judar tvingads bära under Medeltiden, som tecken på att de inte accepterat den kristna tron. Sammanblandningen av kätteri med magisk kunskap är antagligen en orsak till att struthatten också har blivit ett kännetecken för häxor från den anglo-saxiska kulturkretesen.
Efter detta stickspår är vi nu tillbaka hos de fruktade kvinnoväsen vars makt manifesterades under de centraleuropeiska adventsriterna. De har ofta identifierats som häxor, en beteckning som går tillbaka till det forngemanska hagzusa, ett ord vars ursprung är svårt att spåra, men det kan ha med ordet ”häck” att göra, alltså en gränsbeteckning, liksom den tjeckiske demonen Čerts namn skulle det kunna betyda ”dra en linje”. Häxan skulle då vara en gränsvarelse mellan liv och död.
Ursprunget till det engelska ordet witch är lättare att spåra. Det kommer från urgermanskans halja-wītjan, som än samansättning av namnet på det forngemanska Dödsriket Hel och wītjan, ”förstå”, alltså något i still med ”någon som känner Dödsriket”. Häxor är alltid kvinnor och som sådana sätts de ofta i samband med spädbarnsdödlighet och försvunna barn, de beskrivs då som kvinnliga kannibaler eller vampyrer.
Denna otäcka aspekt av häxan har dock mildrats inom vissa kulturkretsar. I Italien kommer häxan La Befana den femte januari (tretton- eller uppenbarelsedagen) med presenter till barnen. Legenderna som berättas kring Befana tycks knyta henne till myter kring barnadödande häxor. Enligt en utbredd legend skulle Bafana ha förvandlats till en barnarövande häxan efter det att hennes enda barn dött. Då hon hört att Jesus blivit född sökte sig Befana till Betlehem i avsikt att röva bort eller döda honom. Men, då hon konfronterats med det milda, gudomliga barnet blev hon så rörd att hon gav Jesusbarnet en present istället. Som tack förklarade det lilla barnet att La Befana hädanefter skulle bli som en mor för varje italienskt barn.
Då jag nu kommit hem från mina resor till Prag och Berlin och efter att ha virrat runt på stigarna kring de tjeckiska adventsriterna såg jag skräckfilmen La Llorona. ”Gråterskan”, som bygger på en välkänd mexikansk legend om en barnarövande spökgestalt.
En kvinna var hämningslöst förälskad i sin make och led av att han älskade deras söner mer än han älskade henne. Då hon överraskade sin make med en älskarinna lät hon sin ilska och förtvivlan gå ut över sönerna, som hon dränkte i en flod. Om hon inte kunde finna sina mördade söners själar så var La Llorona inte välkommen till Himlen utan tvingades att ständigt irra kring i Mexikos städer och byar. Oupphörkigt snyftande och gråtande rövar La Llorona bort barn som hon sedan dränker i floder och andra vattendrag. Liksom Barbora är La Llorona vitklädd och beslöjad.
Likväl är La Llorona antagligen vitt skild från sin europeiska släkting. Fast samtidigt finns det egentligen inget som hindrar att det mexikanska spöket har inspirerats av intryck österifrån. Jag skulle dock tro att hon är mer ett barn av Cihuacōātl den aztekiska gudinnan för fruktbarhet och moderskap. Även om hon ibland avbildades som en ung kvinna, framställdes Cihuacōātl oftare som en hård, gammal kvinna beväpnad med spjut och sköld. Födelse jämfördes med krigföring och kvinnor som dog i barnsäng hedrades som fallna krigare. Men liksom sina europeiska motsvarigheter framställdes också Cihuacōātl som en barnarövare, som spökade vid vägkorsningar eller på natten smög sig in i husen för att stjäla barn.
Likadant betedde sig den urgamla, kvinnliga, mesopotamiska natt-demonen Lilith som rövade spädbarn från förtvivlade mödrar. Med tiden sökte sig Lilith in i judisk mytologi och därifrån nådde hon sedan Europa.
Att jämföra seder och bruk inom olika kulturella kontexter är en vansklig och antagligen gagnlös sysselsättning, men det kan likväl inte förnekas att barnadödlighet varit och på många håll i världen fortfarande är en kuslig realitet och varje förlossning är en smärtfylld och farlig process som äger rum i gränslandet mellan liv och död. Så har det varit i årtusenden och det är därför inte så märkligt att varje kulturkrets har funnit såväl beskyddande som hotande andevarelser som tänks existera i gränslandet mellan liv och död.
Min irrande färd som började med munskydd mot en hotande influensa har nu slutat hos mordiska häxor. Kanske handlade den hela tiden om samma sak – om skydd mot, besvärjelse och förståelse av sådant som ständigt hotar oss, samt våra nära och kära. Om döden som ett skräckinjagande hot som trots vår vetskap om dess slutgiltiga seger vi försöker skydda oss mot genom olika riter, som kanske fungerar, kanske inte – som munskydd, maskspel, sagor och riter.
Červinková, Petra och MonikaTauberová (2015) Onen svět. The Other World. Prag: Nárdoní Muzeum. Diamond, Jared (1997) Guns, Germs and Steel. New York: W. W. Norton. Goscilo, Helena, Martin Skoro och Sibelan Forrester (2013) Baba Yaga: The Wild Witch of the East in Russian Fairy Tales. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Hallström, Jan Erik (2000) ”Spanska sjukan - influensans väg 1918,” Socialmedicinsk Tidskrift, vol.77, nr.3. Hislop, Ian och Tom Hockenhull (2018) I Object: Ian Hislop´s search for dissent. London: Thames and Hudson. McNeill, William Hardy (1998). Plagues and Peoples. New York: Anchor. Josephson-Storm, Jason A. (2017) The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: Chicago University Press. McNeill, John och Garner, Helena (1965). Medieval Handbooks of Penance. New York: Octagon Books. Spinney. Laura (2017) Pale Rider: The Spanish Flu of 1918 and How it Changed the World. London Jonathan Cape. Timm, Erika (2010) Frau Holle, Frau Percht und verwandte Gestalten: 160 Jahre nach Jacob Grimm aus germanischer Sicht betrachtet. Stuttgart: Hirzel S. Verlag. Warner Marina (1994) From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers. London: Chatto & Windus. Warner Marina (1998) No Go the Bogeyman: Scaring, Lulling and Making Mock. London: Chatto & Windus. WHO (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report – 28 https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200217-sitrep-28-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=a19cf2ad_2
Today, as so often before, I bought two magazines in the newsstand around the corner – Art e dossier and I grande maestri. Arte e dossier is a lavishly illustrated art journal, issued monthly. It contains the latest news from the art world, descriptions of exhibitions all around the world, and interesting articles. It comes with a supplement describing the life and works or an artist, art from a particular time and area, or an art movement, or trend.
I grande maestri is a suite of comic books that each month presents stories from famous, mainly Italian and French, cartoonists. In both France and Italy, there is a great interest in sophisticated, skillfully made and told comics, a wide range of such publications are published every month, both in the form of books and magazines.
Comic strips, in Italian called fumetti, from the balloons containing words uttered by cartoon characters, are often called la nona arte, the nineth art. I assume the other eight must be music, painting, sculpture, poetry, dance, architecture, film, and television. Although it makes me wonder about the status of fashion and craftsmanship. The special copy of I grande maestri I try to purchase each month contains comic strips drawn and often written by Sergio Toppi (1932 – 2012).
This month´s Art e dossier supplement was about Félix Vallotton (1865 - 1925), who was born in Lausanne but spent his life in France.
The I grande maestri with Toppi stories was called Trame, which may be translated as plots/territories, and included five stories around the New Testament, a medieval legend and a historical depiction of the Dutch colonization of Indonesia in the late 16th century.
Even if the two magazines obviously had nothing in common they made me remember last summer when I and my wife spent some time in Honfleur on the Normandy coast. We had ended up in a very special gîte de passant, bed & breakfast – a nineteenth-century villa looking as if it could have the setting for some history by Flaubert or Maupassant.
Our room could also have been taken out of some French nineteenth-century novel. Such an impression was underlined by our host's well-stocked library of French classics and his enjoyable piano playing – Bach suites and Schubert sonatas. He was a very friendly and forthcoming man, but between us we called him Norman, after Norman Bates of the horror motel in Hitchcock´s Psycho, this was because he was a bachelor, looked like Anthony Perkins and had his house filled with stuffed animals. However, the villa was far from being a place of horror – clean, bright and tidy.
Every morning we were served a plentiful and delicious breakfast, laid out solely for us in an eye-catching and evocative salon with African masks, Japanese lacquer screens. eighteenth-century portraits, stuffed paradise birds and all kinds of other strange things.
Next to the salon was a boudoir with vermilion tapestry, bedspreads, hangings, and curtains.
Right next to the bed was a large, somewhat clumsily stuffed penguin.
By the fireplace was a swordfish head.
All those strange and exotic artifacts made me think of Toppi's comics. They often deal with eccentric, old antiquarians who often serve as narrators in his stories.
Ancient geezers surrounded by books and antiquities, perhaps inspired by Oesterheld's and Breccia's Argentine comic book series Mort Cinder, which among connoisseurs is considered to be a classic masterpiece. They tell about an old antiquarian, Ezra Winston, who owns a curiosity shop in London and in company with the immortal Mort Cinder from time period to time period. They are pursued by a group of appalling “lead-eyed” characters who plan to use Mort Cinder's brain for gruesome experiments.
The reason I came to associate Vallotton with Honfleur was that he often stayed in this charming coastal town, which also attracted several other significant artists and still is filled with art galleries. One of the nineteenth century's important inspirers for other artists, Eugène Boudin, was born in Honfleur. His great importance is based on his fame of being a forerunner to the Impressionists' s and a source of inspiration for many of them. The city's museum is named after him.
Another museum housed in the city is Erik Satie's childhood home, another of Honfleur's great sons, who seems to be increasingly appreciated as one of the great geniuses of the last century, not only in the field of music but also as an inspirer for several branches of modern art, especially in their playful and absurd aspects. When Satie was four years old, the family moved to Paris, but when his mother died two years later, he returned to Honfleur where he lived with his grandparents until he as a teenager was reunited with his father in Paris.
While browsing the magazine with reproductions of Vallotton's paintings, I recognized a view of Honfleur, which corresponded with the one we had from a meadow just below the house we lived in. In Vallotton's painting, the small town is covered by mist, though the sun shone every day we stayed there.
Otherwise, Valllotton's landscapes are generally bright and sunny, especially those he painted in Honfleur and Normandy.
However, his unique graphics are generally dark and use sharp contrasts between white and black.
From time to time they are almost completely black.
Many of his woodcuts radiate melancholy and loneliness. Even when they depict couples, something they often do, the two actors involved seem to be contained within themselves.
His visual language is extremely simplified. He expressed himself by minimal means, but that did not prevent him from imparting his artwork with intense emotions. Like this presentation of a piano recital where the pianist is made from a few lines. She is wearing a bright dress and placed against a white background, while the intensively listening gentlemen are placed in the dark, each in a pose separated from those of the others, but nevertheless attesting to an intensive experience. All five men seem to be enthralled by the music, though each of them in his own way.
In a similar manner, Vallotton succeeds in a woodcut he calls ”patriotic couplet” – each of his graphic sheets is like those of Goya endowed with a title – with the same modest, subtle means in reproducing a variety of emotions of an engaged audience.
Vallotton was a radical man who worked for Le Cri de Paris, the city's leading leftist publication and La Revue Blanche, radical as well, though with a more artistic approach. Vallotton's radicalism may be regarded as anarchic and occasionally manifested itself through his dynamic depictions of riots and demonstrations, as always using empty and filled surfaces.
Vallotton did not hesitate to condemn violence, especially the brutality of authorities.
Even more, however, he portrays marital intimacy, the tension between man and woman. In a picture, he depicts how a man sits in the dark waiting for a woman to finish her evening preparations.
As so often in his other woodcuts, the woman stands in the light. The picture makes me think of a song by Charles Aznavour, Happy Anniversary:
I've been ready for hours and I'm wearing my best,
ordered champagne and flowers and you're not even dressed
It is all too absurd, you're so cross and abrupt,
but I don't say a word or you're bound to erupt.
Your peculiar moods I've experienced before
so I'll pour another drink and quietly pace the floor.
Music, loneliness, darkness, and light are often present by Vallotton.
Dynamic shapes, white and black, empty surfaces interact with completely blackened areas.
After looking at Vallotton's woodcuts and then studying Toppi's comic strips, I found that he often works in a similar manner. Like here, where Emiliano Zapata's mighty sombrero consists solely of a white field.
A naked woman's shapes appear against a black surface.
The body of a World War I soldier stands out as a white, empty surface against a black background.
As with Vallotton, we find a lone figure standing isolated from groups, in this case, an African cow separated from her flock by white, empty space.
The black shadow on the neck of a terrified German soldier becomes the scene of a nightly assault where the attackers are portrayed as white silhouettes.
Like by Vallotton there is a lot of music present in Sergio Toppi´s comics. It can be a violinist performing in an eighteen-century castle,
or a saxophonist playing in a junkyard somewhere in the southern states of the United States.
An impoverished blues guitarist becomes the representative of the oppressed people Toppi often portrays and from whose perspective he tells his stories.
He does, for example depict aboriginals´ conflicts with bandits within Australia's wastelands.
Toppi often finds unexplored and lesser-known areas to depict such conflicts. For example, encounters and battles between Inuit and Vikings in medieval Greenland.
Or the Florida Seminoles' desperate fight against the United States Army between 1818 and 1858.
Toppi moves freely across ages. He follows mammoth hunters during the Stone Age.
South Tyrolean bandits during the sixteenth century.
German soldiers during the Seven Years War, in scenes that make me think of Stanley Kubrick's Barry Lyndon.
Japanese samurai.
Englishmen fighting The Mahdi's religiously inspired army in Sudan.
Forgotten gods, ancient riuals and bodhisattvas.
American gangsters and corrupt cops.
He brings us straight into the Vietnam War,
as well as into an unknown future.
Like by Vallotton, violence can suddenly explode within Toppi´s comic strips.
It often occurs during encounters between widely different cultures, like when he tells the story about an ingenious Scotsman ending up in a Canadian conflict during the eighteenth-century wars between French, English, and Mohicans.
The pages of Toppi's comic books are often composed in a cinematically dynamic manner as if inspired by scenes from a western film by Sergio Leoni. It may like here be a hunter aiming at an attacking rhino,
or a Russian cavalryman shot down by an English adventurer.
Occasionally Toppi contrasts overloaded drama with calm, almost empty surfaces, as here where the demon Iblis suddenly reveals himself to a lonely desert wanderer.
Like so many other creators of comics, Serio Toppi does not shun horror and mystery, often transforming characters known from history into frightening figures. As with a Polish rider from Sobieski's fight against the Turks during the Battle of Vienna in 1683,
or when he demonizes an Ethiopian priest during his meeting with a cynical adventurer.
Beautiful women often occur in Toppi's comic strips, they might be portrayed from a slightly ironic angle, like this desirable woman who exposes herself in one of the Titanic´´s cabins while Toppi´s frequent inspirer, Gustave Klimt, may be discerned in the background.
Toppi´s concept of beauty tends to have a tinge of exoticism,
and he often reveals a capacity to capture the beauty of older women.
In particular, he excels in depicting the mysterious allure of oriental beauties like those found in tales from The Arabian Nights. He often depicts them in colour, in a dark gleaming manner.
Although Sergio Topp seems to have a fondness for dynamically designed, almost chaotic and overloaded imagery, he may also produce more quiet imagery, especially in the many comic strips he has done based on biblical motifs, where he also uses more colour than he usually does, though in a more subdued manner.
Nature is often present in Toppi's compositions.
His depictions of nature are generally dynamic, varied and detailed. As usual, he tends to create dense panoramic patterns in which he likes to integrate different species of strange animals.
He often lets the animals speak and even direct the course of events.
They may be victims, like the slaughtered seals in a series about Norwegian hunters in the Arctic by the beginning of the last century,
or moose being shot by Russian hunters during the nineteenth century.
However, animals may also tell stories, Toppi then moves the perspective down to their level. Like the one of a Komodo Dragon,
or a gazelle in Arabia.
An armadillo getting lost in a fairy tale world.
Toppi also portrays known celebrities, paying attention to leaders from all over the world, and within different eras. It may be Shaka Zulu in southern Africa,
Taras Bulba in Ukraine,
Genghis Khan,
Federico II of Svevia,
Custer and Sitting Bull,
Baron von Richthofen.
He mixes time epochs and locations. He may, for example, let an evil gnome cause German arrogance.
An English adventurer from the nineteenth century gets involved with the fighting between Vikings.
Toppi might also pay homage to other masters, more famous than him. Like Hugo Pratt and his legendary adventurer Corto Maltese,
or Tiziano Sclavi's ”Nightmare Detective” Dylan Dog.
Toppi´s strength is his ability to depict a story in an often unexpected, but nevertheless easily detected personal manner, which also is anthropologically/historically correct and attentive to small, significant details. The stories he tells are generally not as memorable, surprising and effective as, for example, those of Hugo Pratt. However, like Hugo Pratt's hero Corto Maltese, Toppi's characters, if they are not outright evil, tend to have an impressive bearing and radiate stoic loneliness, paired with a certain cynicism, regardless from whatever culture they originate.
And then there are the old men surrounded by old papers and gadgets,
who, in an age of increasingly technical perfection, insist on toiling with paper and pencil.
Or who sit lost in reveriee or dreams about adventure.
For once, I have put together a blog with more pictures than text. Maybe my fascination with Sergio Toppi's visual world has thrown me off track and I have possibly given him more appreciation than what others assume he is worthy of. What do I know? Toppi´s
unique depictions of adventures within a world without borders involve all kind of people, as well as animals and span thousands of years. Such stories and imagery still speaks to the eager and adventurous child that has remained inside me.
Comic books have only recently received some of the attention I assume they deserve. Sergio Toppi, whose magazines, books and comic strips now have been translated into several languages worked throughout his life as a cartoonist in various children's and youth magazines and did not receive much appreciation among art connoisseurs. He was appreciated and judged within the specific crowd that moved within the world of comics, outside such groups Toppi was virtually unknown.
We have a tendency to judge works within the framwork of their assigned genre and many of us may thus miss the stimulating acquaintances with worlds beyond what we perceive as our special interest area. I know women who only read what they call "women's literature". Others I know only read thrillers and murder mysteries.
Some genres have almost exclusively been judged within a framework limited by preconceived notions. Science fiction was for along time obviously suffering from such limitations, and that might still be the case. A thought-provoking author like Liu Cixin, who recently took hold of me through his visions of Chinese politics and parallel worlds, is probably mostly read and commented on by science-fiction fans. One of them is apparently former US president Barack Obama, who in a New York Times interview stated:
Sometimes you read fiction just because you want to be someplace else. […] the stuff I read just to escape ends up being a mix of things – some science fiction. For a while, there was a three-volume science-fiction novel, the “Three-Body Problem” series, which was just wildly imaginative, really interesting. It wasn´t so much sort of character studies as it was just this sweeping … The scope was immense. So that was fun to read, partly because my day-to-day problems with Congress seems fairly petty – not something to worry about. Aliens are about to invade. [Obama laughs].
Another genre suffering from a similar closeting is in all likelihood horror fiction. It took a long time for a master like Stephen King to be judged outside the limits of that particular genre frames and to be recognized as the skillful writer he actually is (usually – he has written quite a few flops as well).
So let us like Sergio Toppi pay homage to diversity and enjoy the pleasures it may offer. My fascination with Sergio Toppi´s art supports my faith that make-believe does exist and is a force to reckon with. So is music, painting, sculpture, poetry, dance, architecture, film, and television, as well as theatre, religion, fashion and craftsmanship. However, like everything that is beautiful, desirable and thought-provoking the arts have to be savoured with care and moderation, something that in my opinion are essential conditions for true aesthetics.
It’s interesting, the stuff I read just to escape ends up being a mix of things — some science fiction. For a while, there was a three-volume science-fiction novel, the “Three-Body Problem” series, which was just wildly imaginative, really interesting. It wasn’t so much sort of character studies as it was just this sweeping … The scope of it was immense. So that was fun to read , partly because my day-to-day problems with Congress seem fairly petty — not something to worry about. Aliens are about to invade.
Kakutani, Michiko (2017) “Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years: Books.” The New York Times, January 16.
Häromdagen köpte jag i tidningskiosken som så ofta förr två tidskrifter - Art e dossier och I grande maestri. Arte e dossier är en överdådigt illustrearad konsttidskrift som kommer ut varje månad. Den innehåller senaste nytt från konstvärlden, olika utställningar lite varstans i världen, intressanta artiklar och en bilaga som tar upp verk av en speciell konstnär, såväl historiska som moderna sådana.
I grande maestri är en svit med olika serietidningar som varje månad presenterar välkända serietecknare, främst italienska och franska sådana. I såväl Frankrike som Italien finns ett stort intresse för sofistikerade, vältecknade serier. Varje månad kommer det ut en mängd sådana publikationer.
Tecknade serier, fumetti, brukar i Italien kallas la nona arte “den nionde konsten”. Jag antar att de andra då skulle vara musik, måleri, skulptur, poesi, dans, arkitektur, film och TV. Fast det får mig förståas att undra vad exempelvis mode och hantverk har tagit vägen. Nåväl den I grande maestri tidning som jag varje månad försöker få tag på innehåller serier tecknade och ofta skrivna av Sergio Toppi (1932 – 2012).
Denna månad handlade Art e dossiers bilaga om Félix Vallotton (1865 – 1925), som föddes i Lausanne men tillbringade så gott som hela sitt liv i Frankrike.
Månadens I grande maestri magasin med toppihistorier kallades Trame, kanske något i stil med ”områden/revir” och innehöll fem berättelser kring Nya Testamentet, en medeltida legend och en historisk skildring av den holländska kolonisationen av Indonesien under slutet av 1500-talet.
Uppenbarligen hade de båda tidskrifterna ingenting med varandra att göra, men de fick mig likväl att minnas förra sommaren då jag med mion hustru tillbringade en tid i Honfleur vid Normandies kust. Vi hade hamnat i en alldeles speciell gîte de passant, bed & breakfast. En artonhundratalsvilla som såg ut att ha varit skådeplatsen för någon historia av Flaubert eller Maupassant.
Även vårt rum tycktes hämtat från någon fransk artonhundratalsroman. Intrycket underströks av vår värds välförsedda bibiotek med franska klassiker och hans stillsamma pianospel – bachsviter och schubertsonater. En ytterst vänlig och tjänstvillig man, men mellan oss kallade vi honom för Norman, efter Norman Bates från skräckmotellet i Psycho, detta eftersom han var ungkarl, liknade Anthony Perkins och hade huset fyllt med uppstoppade djur. Men, det var långtifrån ett skräckhus – ljust och välstädat.
Varje morgon serverades vi en riklig och utsökt frukost, framställd enbart för oss i en fantasieggande salong med afrikanska masker, japanska lackskärmar. artonhundratalsporträtt, uppstoppade paradisfåglar och allsköns andra märkliga ting.
Bredvid salongen fanns ett sovrum med blodröda tygtapeter, överkast, förhängen och gardiner.
Alldeles intill sängen stod en stor, oformlig och uppstoppad penguin.
I den öppna spisen fanns ett svärdfiskhuvud placerat.
Det var denna mångfald av besynnerliga och exotiska ting som kom mig att tänka på Toppis serier. De handlar ofta om excentriska, äldre samlare av märkliga ting, som i serierna berättar sin historier.
Gamla stofiler instängda bland böcker och antikviteter, kanske inspirerade av Oesterhelds och Breccias argentinska seriemagasin Mort Cinder, som bland seriekännare nu räknas som en klassiker De handlar just om en spränglärd åldring som äger en antikvitetshandel i London och tillsammans med den odödlige Mort Cinder färdas från tidsperiod till tidsperiod. De förföljs ständigt av ett gäng sinstra ”blyögda” figurer som planerar att använda Mort Cinders hjärna för lugubra experiment.
Orsaken till att jag kom att associera Vallotton med Honfleur beror på att han ofta vistades i denna pittoreska hamnstad, som även har lockat till sig flera andra betydande konstnärer och fortfarande är fylld med konstgallerier. En av artonhundratalets betydande inspiratörer för andra konstnärer, Eugène Boudin, var för övrigt född i staden. Hans stora betydelse grundar sig på att han anses vara en av impressionisternas främsta föregångare och inspirationskälla. Stadens museum har fått sitt namn efter honom.
Ett annat museum inrymt i staden är Erik Saties bardomshem.Också han en av Honfleurs stora söner som för varje år tycks bli alltmer uppskattad som en av förra seklets stora förgångsmän, inte enbart inom musikens område utan också som ett betydande källsprång till den moderna konsten, speciellt i dess lekfulla och absurda framtoning . Då Satie var fyra år flyttade familjen till Paris, men då hans mor dog två år senare återvände han till Honfleur där han bodde hos sina morföräldrar tills han som tonåring återförenades med fadern i Paris.
Då jag bläddrade i magasinet med reproduktioner Vallottons konstverk kände jag igen en utsikt över Honfleur som motsvarade den man hade från en äng nedanför huset som vi bodde i. Fast på Vallottons tavla är den lilla staden dimhöljd, medan solen hela tiden sken då vi vistades där.
Valllottons landskapsskildringar är i allmänhet ljusa och soliga, speciellt de han målade i Honfleur och Normandie.
Hans mycket speciella grafik är dock i allmänhet mörk och spelar skickligt på skarpa kontraster mellan vitt och svart.
Emellanåt är hans träsnitt nästan helt svarta.
Många av konstverken utstrålar känslor av melankoli och ensamhet. Även då de framställer par, vilket de ofta gör, tycks de två aktörerna vara inneslutna i sig själva.
Vallottons grafiska stil är ytterst förenklad i meningen att han uttrycker sig med små medel, men det hindrar inte att han fyller dem med intensiva känslor. Som denna pianosejour där pianisten enbart är framställd medelst ett par streck, sittande iförd en ljus klänning mot en vit fond. Alltmedan de intensivt lyssnande herrarna sitter i mörker. Var och en i pose skild från de andra, men likväl vittnande om stor uppmärksamhet. De tycks samtliga vara gripna av musiken, fast var och en på sitt sätt.
På ett liknande sätt lyckas Vallotton i ett träsnitt han kallat ”patriotisk kuplett” - varje grafiskt blad är liksom hos Goya försett med en titel - med små, subtila medel framställa en mängd olika känslor hos en emotionellt engagerad publik.
Vallotton var en radikal man som arbetade för Le Cri de Paris, stadens ledande vänsterpublikation och La Revue Blanche, radikal även den, fast med en mer konstnärlig inriktning. Vallottons radikalism, som i det närmaste kan uppfattas som anrkistisk, yttrar sig emellanåt i hans dynamiskt originella framställningar av upplopp och demonstrationer, som alltid spelade med tomma, respektive fyllda ytor.
Vallotton drog sig inte för att fördöma våld och då speciellt brutalitet från myndigheternas sida.
Än mer skildrar han dock äktenskaplig intimitet, spänningen mellan man och kvinna. I en bild framställer han hur en man sitter i mörker i väntan på att en dam skall bli klar med sin aftontoalett. Som så ofta i hans andra träsnitt befinner sig kvinnan i ljus.
Bilden får mig att tänka på en sång av Charles Aznavour, Happy Anniversary:
Jag är klar sen mer än en timme, sitter här beredd,
har beställt champange och blommor, du är inte ens klädd
Det är absurt, du är så sur och irriterad,
jag säger inget när du är agiterad.
Känner väl ditt usla beteende
och sitter därför tyst; fånigt leende.
Musik, ensamhet, mörker och ljus är ofta närvarande hos Vallotton.
Dynamiska former, vitt och svart, tomma ytor som rytmiskt samverkar med helt ifyllda områden.
Efter att ha betraktat Vallottons träsnitt och sedan tagit fram Toppis serier upptäcker jag att denne ofta arbetar på ett liknande sätt som den franske mästaren. Som här, där Emiliano Zapatas väldiga sombrero enbart består av ett vitt fält.
En naken kvinnas former framträder vita mot en svart yta.
Kroppen på en soldat från Första Världskriget avtecknar sig som en vit, tom yta mot en svart bakgrund.
Liksom hos Vallotton står en ensam gestalt ofta isolerad från en grupp, i det här fallet en afrikansk ko som en vit bakgrund skiljer från hennes flock.
Den svarta skuggan på halsen av en skräckslagen tysk soldat blir scenen för ett nattligt överfall där angriparna framställs som vita silhuetter.
Liksom hos Vallotton finns det mycket musik även hos Sergio Toppi, Det kan röra sig om en violinst från sjuttonhundratalet.
eller en saxofonist från USAs sydstater.
En utfattig bluesgittarist blir till representant för de udda, undertryckta befolkningsgrupper som Toppi ofta framställer och utfrån vars perspektiv han skildrar sina historier.
Det kan exempelvis röra sig om aborginiers konflikter med banditer i Australiens ödemarker.
Toppi finner ofta oanade och mindre kända områden för att skildra den sortens konflikter. Exempelvis vikingars möten och strider med Inuiter på det medeltida Grönland.
Eller Floridaseminolernas desperata kamp mot USAs armé mellan 1818 och 1858.
Toppi rör sig obehindrat över tidsåldrarna. Han följer mammutjägare under Stenåldern.
Sydtyrolska banditer under sextonhundratalet.
Tyska soldater under sjuårskriget, i scener som får mig att tänka på Stanley Kubricks Barry Lyndon.
Japanska samurajer.
Engelsmännens strider mot Il Mahdis trupper i Sudan.
Glömda gudar, uråldriga riter och bodhisattvor.
Amerikanska gangsters och korrumperade polismän.
Han för oss in i Vietnamkriget.
och långt in i en okänd framtid.
Som hos Vallotton kan Toppi plötsligt få våld att explodera.
Även det i form av oväntade möten mellan vitt skilda kulturer, som då han berättar om en naiv skotte som blir inblandad i en kandensisk konflikt under sjuttonhundratalet mellan fransmän, engelsmän och mohikaner.
Toppis serietidningsidor kan vara filmatiskt dynamiska, som i scener från en västernfilm av Sergio Leoni. Det kan röra sig om en anstormande noshörning.
eller en kosack som attackerar en engelsk äventyrare.
Emellanåt kontrasterar Toppi överlastad dramatik med lugna, i det närmaste tomma ytor, som här där demonen Iblis plötsligt uppenbarar sig för en ensam ökenvandrare.
Som så många andra serieskapare skyr inte Serio Toppi skräck och mystik och han omformar ofta mer eller mindre kända personligheter till skrämmande gestalter. Som Sobieskis polska ryttare under slaget om Wien 1683.
Eller en etiopisk prästs möte med en cynisk äventyrare.
Toppis seriesupplsag är även fyllda med vackra kvinnor, ofta framställda med en lätt ironisk vinkling, som denna åtråvärda kvinna som sensuellt breder ut sig i en av Titanics hytter, med förebilden Gustave Klimt diskret skymtande i bakgrunden.
Toppis kvinnor är ofta exotiska
och han fångar även skönheten hos äldre kvinnor.
Speciellt excellerar han i framställningen av mystiska kvinnogestalter i de talrika serier där han anspelar på berättelser ur Tusen och Natt, han använder sig då ofta av en mörkt glimmande färgsättning.
Trots att Sergio Toppi tycks ha en förkärlek för dynamiskt utformade, näst intill kaotisk öbverlastade bildytor kan han även utforma mer stillsamma bildförlopp, speciellt i de många serier han gjort med bibliska motiv, där han också använder mer färg än han vanligtvis brukar göra, men han gör det mer dämpat än i sina sagoinspirerade seriealbum .
Naturen är ofta närvarande i Toppis komplicerade kompositioner.
Hans naturskildringar är i allmänhet dynamiska, omväxlande och detaljerade. I vanlig ordning skapar han täta panoramiska mönster inom vilka han gärna integrerar olika djur.
Ofta låter han djuren tala och ibland även föra berättelseförloppet vidare.
Djuren kan vara offer, som sälarna i en serie om norska jägare i Arktis vid början av förra seklet,
eller då de dödas av ryska jägare under artonhundratalet.
Men det kan också röra sig om djur som berättar historier och då flyttar Toppi perspektiven till deras nivå. Som en varan från Komodo,
eller en gazell i Arabien.
En bälta som gått vilse i en sagovärld.
Toppi skildrar även kända levnadsöden och även då rör han sig över hela jorden och inom skilda tidsepoker. Det kan röra sig Shaka Zulu i södra Afrika,
Taras Bulba i Ukraina,
Djingis Khan,
Federico II av Svevia,
Custer och Sitting Bull,
och Baron von Richthofen.
Han blandar friskt. Exempelvis kan han låta en ondskefull gnom bli orsaken till tysk arrogans.
En engelsk äventyrare från artonhundratalet blir invecklad i strider med vikingar.
Toppi kan också ägna sig åt att hylla seriefigurer skapade av andra mästare, betydligt mer välkända än honom. Exempelvis Hugo Pratt och hans internationelle äventyrare Corto Maltese,
eller Tiziano Sclavis ”mardrömsdetektiv” Dylan Dog.
Toppi har sin styrka i bildernas förmåga att både berätta en historia och vara antopologiskt/historiskt korrekta. De historier han skildrar är i allmänhet inte lika minnesvärda, förvånande och effektiva som exempelvis Hugo Pratts historiska skrönor. Fast liksom Hugo Pratts hjälte Corto Maltese har Toppis karaktärer, då de inte är ondskefulla och snikna, en viss resning och utstrålar då en stoisk ensamhet, parad med världstrött cynism, oavsett från vilken kultur de än härstammar.
Och så finns där ju gubbarna som forskar bland gamla papper och prylar.
Eller som i en tid präglad av en ständigt stegrad tecknisk fulländning envisas med att plita med papper och penna.
Eller som sitter och drömmer om äventyr och fantasteri.
För en gångs skull har jag ställt samman ett blogginlägg med fler bilder än text. Kanske har min fascination inför Sergio Toppis bildvärld ryckt med mig och möjligen gett honom större uppskattning än vad andra kan tycka att han är värd. Vad vet jag? Hans i mitt tycke unika framställningar av en gränslös äventyrsvärld som rymmer all världens folkslag, dess djur och natur över ett väldigt tidsspann talar till det vetgiriga och äventyrslystna barnet som lever kvar inom mig.
Serietecknare har först under senare tid fått en del av den uppmärksamhet jag tycker de förtjänar. Sergio Toppi vars magasin numera är översatta till en mängd olika språk, verkade under hela sitt liv som tecknare i diverse barn- och ungdomsmagasin och fick inte någon större uppskattning inom konstkonnässörernas kretsar. Uppskattades och bedömdes han var det av den speciella skara som rörde sig inom seriemagasinens värld, men utanför den kretsen var han så gott som okänd.
Vi har en tendens att bedöma verk inom sina genreramar och många av oss missar kanske därmed stimulerande bekantskaper med världar som befinner sig utanför det som vi uppfattar som våra speciella intressesfärer. Jag känner kvinnor som enbart läser vad de kallar ”kvinnolitteratur”. Liksom flera som enbart läser deckare.
Vissa genrer har har så gott som uteslutande bedömts inom ramar begränsade av förutfattade meningar. Science fiction var uppenbarligen länge en sådan värld och det är möjligen fortfarande så att en tankeväckande författare som Liu Cixin, som nyligen ryckte med mig med sina sina visioner av kinesisk politik och parallella världar, helst läses av science fiction fans.
Likaså var det säkerligen med skräcklitteratur. Det tog lång tid för en mästare som Stephen King att bedömas utanför de speciella genreramarna och bli erkänd som den skicklige författare han faktiskt är (oftast - även han gör en och annan pinsam miss).
Så låt oss likt Sergio Toppi hylla mångfalden och förbehållslöst låta oss fascineras av den. Min fascination inför denne italienske serietecknares verk grundar sig säkerligen på min övertygelse om att fantasi, och chimärer verkligen existerar i form av en alternativ verklighet, att tro och magi är krafter som bör tas på allvar - det är även musik, målning, skulptur, poesi, dans, arkitektur, film och tv, samt teater, religion, mode och hantverk. Men sådant som är vackert, åtråvärt och tankeväckande måste njutas med omsorg och måtta, de är enligt mig den sanna estetikens förutsättningar.
Sigmund Freud wrote in 1929 a reflection on how an individual's wishes are counteracted by society's demands and expectations. Civilization and its Discontent begins with an obviously undeniable claim:
It is impossible to resist the impression that people commonly apply false standards, seeking power, success and wealth for themselves and admiring them in others, while underrating what is truly valuable in life. Yet in passing such a general judgement one is in danger of forgetting the rich variety of the human world and its mental life.
Thus Freud established our pursuit of perfection as one of humanity's greatest scourges. If we do not find perfection in ourselves, we seek it in others. Consequences for not accomplishing great expectations might be dire for ourselves, as well as for those unable to live up to the requirements we are imposing upon them. However, it may at the same time be argued that pursuit of perfection has been a crucial driving force behind the achievements of individuals, as well as the entire humankind. It made us humans, turned as into ”civilized” creatures. By striving for something better, a perfect existence, we have changed the prerequisites for our existence. We have transformed nature into culture. By doing so we made ourselves, as well as others, imagining us as being ”superior” compared to what we once were. However, no one is perfect. Human perfection does not exist. Coercion and rectifications are not requirements for improvement, rather the opposite.
We judge others in accordance with what we perceive as their state of perfection. We compare them to role models – those perfect creatures we, and especially others, should emulate. Children are tormented by parents who compare them to the offspring of other families. “Look at Yvonne she is already a medical doctor. What are you? Look at Gustav he has become a millionaire. What have you become? What have you done other than neglecting your natural gifts and qualifications? You are a good-for-nothing, a slugger, a failure.”
Comparisons make their appearance early on in a child's life and might in a defenseless creature create feelings of shortcomings and inadequacy. S/he might start to consider her/himself as a loser. Someone who is different from ”everyone else”. An insecure girl or boy might imagine that s/he is an alien. That s/he was left on the doorstep; an orphaned changeling, especially if her/his father and mother got into the habit of comparing her/him to ”more successful” siblings.
Our idols are those who have ”succeeded”, become famous and successful – the very criteria for an idol. They are the ones we want to be, or rather – whom we want our life companions, our children, our employees, our superiors, to be. During my time in the United States, I marveled at the large number of children's and ”young adult´s” books that had been written and published about successful, admirable youngsters, in whose spirit the growing-up generation should act.
Here in Italy, the Catholic Church is constantly publishing stories about young saints brought up by wise men and women. Like Dominic Savio, who died as a 14-year-old student of St. Giovanni Bosco (1815-1888), founder of the Salesian Order, which purpose it was to take care of abandoned, or poor children and raise them to become rural - or industrial workers. San Bosco wrote an inspirational book about Dominic Savio, in which he portrayed him as an ideal for students and young Christians. All over the Catholic world, there are statues of Saint Bosco and Saint Dominic.
China had (has?) its absurd cult of the young soldier and cultural hero Lei Feng: ”Follow Comrade Lei Feng's example.”
The Soviet Union had its Pavlik Mozorov, who betrayed his regime-critical father. After the Soviet authorities had executed his erring father, Pavlik was murdered by his rightly upset relatives. Thirteen-year-old Pavlik became hailed by a great variety of poems, biographies, a symphony, an opera, and several movies. Virtually every social system seems to be creating its own youthful heroes. Beautiful young people who are too good to be true.
It is not only saints, athletics, revolutionary heroes and young geniuses who serve as role models. We are also harassed by something as general and abstract as ”everyone else”, or so-called ”normal persons”. Idiotic generalizations, mirrored by expressions such as ”we, the people” and other all-encompassing expressions of mob madness, which constantly is roaring all around us. Comparisons with Tom, Dick, and Harry have been nailed into our thick skulls, or deeply rooted within our brains. We are whipped through life until we on our deathbeds are forced to admit: “Past! Past! Oh, had I but enjoyed myself while I could have done so! but now it is too late.”
As a child and youngster, I was an enthusiastic reader of Swedish translations of an American comic magazine series called Classics Illustrated. Unfortunately, my mother once threw away my collection of comics while she was clearing out our attic. There were Bang!, which featured exceptionally well-drawn comics translated from the French, as well as all my Donald Duck magazines. She probably thought I had put them up there because they no longer interested me. On the contrary, I treasured them all and wanted to keep them. The loss may not have been so great after all. If I now could revisit all those magazines I doubt I would be able to retrieve the magic that once devoured me.
Among all the Classics Illustrated, Faust was probably my greatest reading experience. I returned to it again and again. Faust was actually the last number of the original Classics Illustrated series issued by the American Albert Lewis Kanter. This specific Faust issue was unique in the sense that it contained both the first and second parts of the Tragedy. Faust´s second part is considerably more difficult to access than its first part and it took me a long time before I could read it in the original.
My grandfather had in his library a magnificent edition of Faust's first part, lavishly illustrated by a certain August von Kreling. I read it several times, but it was not until I read the second part in Britt G. Hallqvist's excellent Swedish translation and I finally got a grasp of the mighty work, which like other classics can be read several times and at every occasion be interpreted in a variety of ways. Goethe's Faust is occasionally heavy reading, though if digested with calm, patience and reflection it is quite thought-provoking.
Some years ago, I watched Aleksandr Sokurov's claustrophobic film Faust, which takes place in the early 19th century, within a small German, run-down town. I found some of it incomprehensible, though nonetheless, the movie became a near-hypnotically intense experience, with images etching themselves into my memory. A distorted, strange dream version that, in all its originality, provided an in-depth and unexpected angle to the Faustian story, which Sokurov. like in a Kafka story, limited within the boundaries of a small world, which suddenly opened up to unanticipated depths. Because of its strange allure Sokurov's version of Faust, Part I, although sometimes quite different from Goethe's story, is probably the interpretation, which in my opinion, comes closest to the great German author´s vision.
To me, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust – there are several other novels about the legendary or real Johann Georg Faust, who apparently lived between 1480 and 1540 – deals with the pursuit of perfection. The scientist/magician Faust pursues a single meaning/law governing our entire existence. In other words, he seeks God, the paragon for perfection.
The drama is launched in Heaven where Mephistopheles, who is either the Devil or a demon in his service, meets with God. However, before it all begins a Prelude takes place at a theatre where a performance is about to start. The salon is filling up, within a few minutes the curtain will rise. Grabbed by rampage fever, a Theatre Director, a Resident Poet and a Comic discuss what they expect from the show. The Director wants it to be a success, that the spectators will appreciate the spectacle and make others want to visit his theater so all performances will be sold out. The Poet does not really want to make a spectacle of his work. He has spent lonely days and nights labouring over his work. The Comic demands that the show will be entertaining, an unforgettable extravaganza.
Through the Prelude Goethe makes it clear that his drama is a fairy tale. That the tragedy's characters are not ”real” people, they are not even based on any existing models, neither contemporary nor historical. They are mere figurines, perhaps even dolls (during Goethe's time it was common to present the Faust legend as a Punch and Judy Show). His characters are fictitious, symbols within a Morality Play.
Mephistopheles is a liar. He hides Truth behind a web of lies, obscuring the fact that we ought to use our knowledge to help others. Instead, Mephistopheles teaches us that happiness comes from satisfying selfish urges. He preaches a gospel based on a search for well-being and success at the expense of others. To quench our sexual desires without respecting the feelings of others To exercise power by suppressing our fellow beings, to revel in the misfortune of the destitute and underdogs. He tells us that in our constant search for well-being and money, the use of cunning and fraud is quite OK.
It appears that Oscar Wilde in his The Picture of Dorian Gray introduced a Mephistophelean figure. in the shape of Lord Henry Wotton. An elegant gentleman who exposes ”wrong, fascinating, poisonous, delightful theories.” A charming conversator, a spiritual companion endowed with wit and a brilliant intellect. No wonder that the handsome, but naive, Dorian Gray is enchanted by Lord Wotton's dazzling arguments and soon puts his radical theories into practice, unaware of the fact that the decadent and bored Lord Wotton used them only to shock his surroundings and appear as an interesting fellow. Lord Wotton questions every established truth and tries to replace it with his own sybaritic pleasure doctrine:
”Life is not governed by will or intention. Life is a question of nerves, and fibres, and slowly built-up cells in which thought hides itself and passion has its dreams. You may fancy yourself safe, and think yourself strong. But a chance tone of colour in a room or a morning sky, a particular perfume that you had once loved and that brings sublte memories with it, a line from a piece of music that you had ceased to play – I tell you Dorian, that it is on things like these that our lives depend.”
It is only when Dorian Gray despairs about himself and the kind of existence he has become trapped within that he realizes that Lord Wotton's teachings were false and corrupting. His affirmation that temptations are beneficial became the reason why Dorian Gray sought satisfaction at the expense of other human beings, thereby destroying both his own life and that of others. Oscar Wilde appears to have been a believer in art and aesthetics, assuming that they had no other purpose than to provide pleasure, forgetfulness, and relief. As an escape from the grotesque reality Dorian Gray indulged himself in egocentric exuberance, Wilde made him seek relief in aesthetics, a deliverance from threatening anguish – elegant home décor, exquisite perfumes, beautiful clothes, fine art, good literature, beautiful music. However, a polished surface of taste and wonder lured an increasing disintegration that soon affected Dorian's mind. More or less unconsciously he is eaten up by bad conscience. Dorian Gray had imagined that an unrestrained existence was the same as complete freedom:
The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. Resist it, and your soul grows sick with longing for the things it has forbidden to itself, with desire for what its monstrous laws have made monstrous and unlawful.
But by deceiving others, Dorian deceived himself and the final consequence of his recklessness was a complete moral and physical downfall. Dorian Gray ended up despised and hated by himself and all those he had known and corrupted.
Oscar Wilde had not read Søren Kierkegaard's books, neither Stages on Life´s Way, nor Either/Or, in which the Danish philosopher analyzed the nature of the Aesthetic Man. A person imprisoned by a string of beads composed of enjoyable episodes. In fear of being deprived of his pleasures The Aesthetic Man focuses on specific moments that provide contentment and gratification, thereby his personality becomes fragmented. The Aesthetic Man loses itself, crackles. He becomes an actor, moving from set to set, from character to character. A liar who does not give himself time to reflect on his actions.
The Aesthetic Man fears and avoids moral obligations, chooses not to take any stand, neither to help others nor to assert his belief in an ideology. By following such a path The Aesthetic Man soon finds himself in a paralyzing state where only two choices remain – to take his own life or reconsider his attitude towards life. Unlike The Aesthetic Man, The Ethical Man accepts responsibility for his actions. For Kierkegaard, who in his own manner was a convinced Christian, morality meant relying on God – an unimaginable being, free from all human inhibitions and limitations created by time and space, eternal and infinite. An absurdity that our narrow intellect cannot comprehend. Thus, religion is entirely about faith and thus quite different from science. Faith is a personal experience, inexplicable and far removed from any scientific knowledge.
The truth that Mephistopheles preaches in Goethe's Faust is to live in accordance to a lie, a false illusion, similar to Lord Wotton's pleasure gospel. Mephistopheles' name probably comes from the Hebrew and the character was created in an effort to try to explain why it is so easy to lure even a good man from the path of righteousness. Each of us runs the risk of being tempted by our sensual desires. It thus becomes quite easy to imagine that besides God and his angels there exists a powerful and evil force – a Tempter. It was assumed that we are surrounded by demons, maybe a whole army of them, a legion of satanic devils. The leader of one of these wicked hordes became Mephistopheles, whose name consisted of the words מֵפִיץ (mêp̄îṣ) spreader and ט֫פֶל שֶׁ֫קֶר (tōp̄el šeqer) lie mason.
Like several other liars, Mephistopheles uses cynical charm. He is funny, all-knowing, and witty, just as a skilled manipulator should be. Mephisto is also a good and entertaining companion, as well as a good judge of human nature, well acquainted with diverse environments through which he moves like fish in the water. Of course, Mephistopheles does present himself to God as his loyal and submissive servant, yet his view of the world and human nature is light-years apart from the all-encompassing wisdom of the Ruler of the Universe.
Mephistopheles is incapable of comprehending the limitations of his ideology. He suffers from tunnel vision. A restriction that makes him perceive humans as governed by their basic instincts. According to Mephisto, human beings´ sole function is to satisfy their needs. Surrender to her/his insistent desires and ignore the well-being of others have to be the primary endeavor of any human being. Our Life-Lie.
The Egocentric is for Mephistopheles the essential idol of everything human. The Perfect Man whose every need has been met. The word idol comes from the Greek εἴδωλον, eidōlon, image, actually something that has no real existence. An interpretation of reality, a fantasy. An idol is a superhuman, a creature superior to all others. A Super Lie, a creation by The Master of All Lies – Mephistopheles.
The Superhuman perceives himself as free and independent. He needs no Master, no God. By believing that God is dead, the independent Superman imagines that he has been able to rid himself of human shortcomings, in particular of crippling compassion. However, Superman does not realize that the death of God means the Devil's victory. With God out of the game, Mephistopheles, The Master of All Lies and ultimate supporter of selfishness, will be sole Ruler the World.
Like many other full-fledged egocentrics, Mephistopheles is a gambler. Someone who believes that material gain brings happiness and success. Mephisto is incapable to refrain from making a hopeless bet with God, assuming that if he becomes victorious in such a desperate and relentless gamble, he will eventually gain world domination. The biased and limited Mephisto foolishly wants to convince God that He is wrong and thus make Him lose their constant struggle over human souls. However, Mephistopheles is actually a pathetic amateur compared to a master player like God, who has all the cards at hand and knows how to keep his trump card hidden until the game's final and decisive moment.
God is quite familiar with Faust, how he studies and struggles to reach the inner truth of life's meaning. Nevertheless, to arrive at any valid insight Faust has to leave his ivory tower and become exposed to the temptations inherent in human existence It is only after vanquishing earthly desires and thus prove that he cares for the wellbeing of others that Faust will become a true sage.
Without even realizing it, Mephistopheles acts as God's servant. By giving Faust access to earthly pleasures, bringing him deep down into the abode of desire, Mephistopheles assumes that by indulging Faust with sinful acts he will eventually gain control over Faust´s soul. However, God knows that Faust´s ability to learn from his mistakes will strengthen him, increase his knowledge and that Mephistopheles consequently will lose the bet. Faust will eventually be saved from Hell, but first, he has to be tempted by pleasures and earthly rewards. It is only after realizing into what abysses of despair selfish desire is able to push any human being, that Faust might mature and become a truly wise man:
What if he serves me in confusion now?
Soon I shall lead him into clarity.
A gardener knows the leafling nursling tree
With bloom and fruit will grace the years that follow.
The thrill of the drama, combined with the imagination and ingenuity Goethe spiced it with, rests in the reader's/spectator's doubts if Faust will nip at the baited hooks the wily Mephistopheles are dangling before him. However, Faust manages to wriggle himself out of the traps. Time after time Faust's undeviating curiosity saves him. His unquenchable thirst for knowledge – especially his dissatisfaction and struggle to improve everything – whips him onward. Faust does not become the full-fledged egoist Mephistopheles wants him to turn into.
Despite his good intentions, Faust does a lot of damage to others, mainly by never being fully satisfied. He constantly finds something to complain about. By the beginning of the play, Mephistopheles shows up at Faust´s place, at the very moment Faust is utterly disappointed with himself and his useless aspirations and thus plans to kill himself:
Alas, I´ve studied Philosophy,
The Law and Physics also,
More´s the pity, Divinity
With ardent effort, through and through
And here I am, about as wise
Today, poor fool, as I ever was.
My title is Master, Doctor even
And up the hill and down again
Nearly ten years wherever I please
I´ve led my pupils by the nose –
And see what we can know is: naught.
Faust looks around. He is enclosed by a book-packed study chamber, complete with useless alchemical devices, herbaria, stuffed animals and fetuses within glass jars; cramped, dusty and musty. Here he ended up, coming no further. As Jim Morrison sang:
This is the end, beautiful friend
This is the end, my only friend.
The end.
Faust has read and studied life but has not experienced it – the violence, the love, the pain, and the joy. In a despairing search for meaning, Faust has blindly pushed ahead into nothingness. Finally, he turned to magic, to superstition, dreams, and speculations. And then ... suddenly the gates of Hell are opened wide and the powers of darkness are summoned. Mephistopheles who, in the shape of a poodle, has followed Faust into his suffocating chamber, reveals his true self to the suicidal researcher and presents him with an offer he cannot refuse – he will turn the aged, dandruffed, whining Faust into an strapping young fellow and together they will explore the world, attract desirable women, gather experience and riches. They will wallow in happiness and beauty. Their agreement stipulates that Mephistopheles will be forced to fulfill any wish expressed by Faust. This while Faust only needs to accept one, single condition – if he someday becomes entirely satisfied with what Mephistopheles has provided for him and asks for a single moment to be extended – Verveile doch, du bist so schön, ”Stay a while, you are so beautiful”, then he will be condemned and forever belong to the Devil.
After a long life during which Faust, like each and every one of us, has made quite a number of mistakes, wounded and injured his fellow human beings, he finally finds himself in a situation where, as an administrator over a region, he has been given the opportunity to improve the lives of his subjects, especially by pushing back the sea with dikes, make ditches and turn the earth into cultivable fields. A struggle against nature for the benefit of man – culture against nature. However, like a ruthless dictator Faust intends to achieve progress with whip and carrot:
Get me workmen,
Thousands by any means, with cash
And whores and drink and with the lash
Encourage,tempt, pressgang them in.
I want news every day how far
Along with digging at that trench you are.
However, he perceives the wellbeing of others as his ultimate goal, stating that he will not rest until he has achieved it:
Stand on a free ground with a people who are free
Then to the moment I´d be allowed to say
Bide here, you are so beautiful!
Aeons will pass but the marks made by my stay
On the earth will be indelible.
I enjoy the highest moment now in this
My forefeeling of such happiness.
Finally, Faust has uttered the fatal words Verveile doch, Du bist so schön, ”Stay a while, you are so beautiful.” Mephistopheles triumphs and is about to drag Faust with him down to his kingdom of eternal suffering. However, Mephistopheles has actually lost the bet he made with God. The Devil is only familiar with sensual pleasures and desires; his powers and kingdom are based solely on selfishness and false self-realization. The Devil is utterly unable to understand that most of us might find joy in the well-being of others, just as Faust seems to assume by end of the play.
Faust är döende och det är uppenbarligen först nu i dödsögonblicket som han insett det som William Shakespears samtida, prästen John Donne skrev om i en av sina många begravningsdikter:
Ingen människa är en ö, hel och fullständig i sig själv
varje människa är ett stycke av fastlandet, en del av det hela
Om en jordklump sköljs bort av havet, blir Europa i samma mån mindre,
liksom en udde i havet också skulle bli,
liksom dina eller dina vänners ägor;
varje människas död förminskar mig,
ty jag är en del av mänskligheten.
Sänd därför aldrig bud för att få veta för vem
klockan klämtar; den klämtar för dig.
In Goethe´s Faust, Mephistopheles is revealed as a servant of God. His gambling with God was nothing more than God testing Faust's reliability. God seems to believe that Ein guter Mensch in seinem dunklen Drange ist sich des rechten Weges wohl bewußt, ”A good man does, despite his dark urges, know the right path.” In Faust, Goethe wanted to demonstrate that humanity's foremost driving force is its search for love. To a certain extent, Goethe does in his tale about Faust provide us with an answer to why we should care about other people's well-being. We are naturally social beings. We live in communities and such a life becomes more pleasant, more stimulating and safer if we behave in a caring and friendly manner, instead of being easily irritated and hostile.
However, to turn the messy, whimsical, weird, ironic, hard-to-interpret and occasionally skilfully written Faust into an uplifting tale about humanity's highest ideals would be to push beyond the goal. Faust is hardly a morally unassailable individual. He is far from being a saint. Faust is an egoist whipped through life by his urges and not the least by his lust. Since Faust is a male creature, he seeks love in women. Das Ewig-Weibliche zieht uns hinan, ”The eternal woman hithers us on.”
This conviction may be likened to Dante's love for Beatrice, which guided him through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. It was divine love Dante sought through his Beatrice. She was an ideal, not a ”real” person, a Dream Woman. Dante was never allowed to live with her and when he wrote his powerful epic Beatrice was since long dead. It was absolute love Dante was chasing after in his dream, his Divine Comedy. During his search for knowledge, the Comedy's Dante is inexorably curious, constantly inquiring and in the end he finds l´amore che move il sole e l´altre stelle, ”the Love that moves the sun and the other stars.”
However, what Faust seeks in his love for women is far from being just heavenly bliss. Throughout Goethe's entire work and life, erotic lust is combined with scientific curiosity and this is also the case of his Faust. Love and sexual desire permeate the entire Faust; passionate desire – comic, tender, obscene, ecstatic, mysterious, grotesque. Even the disciplined and deeply religious Dante was possessed by love in its various shapes, though in his epic it was a search for chivalrous and religiously motivated love that urge him on – Divine Love. Nevertheless, just like Goethe, Dante also searched for absolute knowledge. The Comedy's Dante is inexorably curious, inquiring and seeking.
In Faust, angels come down from Paradise to bring with them Faust's redeemed soul, singing Wer immer strebend sich bemüht, den können wir erlösen,"The striver, the endeavourer, him we are able to redeem.” They emerge by the end of a multi-faceted work that was not at all like Dante's Comedy – a religious fable, but rather a tribute to human imagination, scientific research, a perpetual search for the truth. Goethe was not very religious, what he found in religion was love, but not a purely idealistic one, akin to the on Dante was seeking, but love in all its aspects, not least the erotic.
To some extent, Goethe did in his Faust saga provide us with an answer to why we should care for one another. We are naturally social beings. We live in communities and such a life, both within our family fand a larger community, is certainly more pleasant, more stimulating and safer if we are caring and friendly, rather than being easily irritated and hostile. We must affirm love, but not only as an exclusively sexual drive.
Goethe was just as arrogant as Dante, well aware of his vast expertise in a wide variety of areas. He considered himself more of a great scientist than a writer. Goethe's art was according to himself just part of a scientific search for the origin and meaning of life. How could all this knowledge be managed and used for the benefit of himself and others? In a letter, Goethe explained: In mir reinigt sich’s unendlich, und doch gestehe ich gerne, Gott und Satan, Höll und Himmel ist in mir Einem, ”Inside me a constant process of purification is going on and after all, I willingly admit that within myself God and Satan, Hell and Heaven are mixed together.” Faust is an argument about which part of the human nature that should be allowed to take the upper hand – the pursuit of evil, or pursuit of good.
Mephistopheles declares Ich verachte nur Vernunft und Wissenschaft, des Menschen allerhöchste Kraft, ”I only despise reason and knowledge, man's foremost strength.” The Devil´s driving force is his effort to corrupt science, knowledge, and love. Make them all serve a selfish end. Most scientists and teachers supported both National Socialism and Fascism. When we are deprived of compassionate intelligence, respect of and care for nature and people, we become bereaved of a shield and weapon that could be used for love and respect. Neglecting such moral strength makes as slaves under the same destructive force that Mephistopheles adheres to – The Master of all Lies and Sin. Man's search for love and goodness is by this demon reduced to an urge for wanton survival. Er nennt’s Vernunft und braucht’s allein, nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein, ”he [the humans] calls it Reason, but it only makes him more animal than an animal”.
Was it a pursuit of knowledge and love that brought me to Lund University? Maybe, anyway when I got there it felt like freedom.
Here we are now, entertain us.
I feel stupid and contagious,
here we are now, entertain us.
The feeling was probably not entirely different from Faust´s excitement after Mephistopheles had transformed him from being a tired, old man into a handsome youngster. After leaving the warm embrace of my family and the boring, limiting childhood town behind me, I was free to take care of myself in Lund. Like Faust, I threw myself into studies of those subjects things I liked – literature, art and religion, and not the least Drama, Theater, and Film, that at the time was an academic discipline. I experienced some bewildering romances and participated in life and fun, not the east nightly binges with like-minded friends, and an occasional excursion to cities more open and exciting than Lund, such as Copenhagen and Berlin.
Of course, there was some annoyance present as well. Lund had its fair share of boring know-alls who impressed their surroundings with prestigious knowledge. It was in the early seventies and chic to be radical; Mao, Lenin, Che Guevara, and Marx were hailed as heroes. ”Radical intellectuals” urged for world revolution, international solidarity and the importance of organizing to fight The State and Capitalism, while death to the family and religion was peached as well. While spreading around quotes by Mao, Marx, and Hegel, self-proclaimed ”radicals” became extremely annoyed if someone questioned their mediocre axioms. They praised one-party states with oppressive bureaucracies and called their brainwashing ideologies ”constructively implemented socialism”. If I did not agree with such luminaries they condemned, despised or ignored me, labeling me as a "right-wing reactionary" while drowning me with gibberish and ironic comments. The general narrowmindedness got on my nerves and it didn't help that I tried to get my opinions better organized by reading Mao, Hegel, and Marx. I did not understand much of their writings. The first two I found to be hard reading and rather hopeless cases, although parts of what Marx had written I found to be both thoughtful and well-formulated, although I could hardly get a good grasp of his extensive writings.+
However, I counted upon the good companionship of witty friends from my hometown. Claes, Stefan, and Didrik were moderately politically interested. With them, I could discuss other essentials. When it came to politics and philosophy, my corridor mate (the usual living quarters of students were single rooms along a corridor with a common kitchen) Mats Olin became a solid rock and reference point. He did like me come from the rural district of Göinge, but unlike me, he had solid language skills; read unhampered English, German and French, and even Spanish. Mats was knowledgeable about politics, philosophy and social anthropology, and he also read a great deal of fiction far beyond what was considered to be mandatory reading for left-wing sectarians.
It was through Mats I discovered alternatives to the obviously omnipotent, uniform, and often violent totalitarianism that swirled around me. He made me aware of The Frankfurt School, of Marcuse, Illich, Castoriades, Baudrillard, Feyerabend and a host of other new thinkers and critics of biased, totalitarian ways of thinking. Through Mats a whole new world opened up to me, fueled by my increased interest in mysticism and ”alien” cultures. Mats became the reason to why I became interested in the Situationists and during one of our trips to Copenhagen I bought a couple of Danish translations of essential Situationist literature, among them Guy Debord's Society of the Spectacle and an anthology compiled by Victor Martin, one of the leading Danish Situationist artists – There is a Life after Birth.
In Lund, I met a Situationist with whom I became briefly acquainted. Sometimes I encountered the Jean Sellem at the pub Spisen, The Fireplace, where he often nested at a corner table together with the notorious, eternal student Maxwell Overton. Jean Sellem always drank tea, while Maxwell drank cheap Turkish wine, Beyaz, it was bad enough as it was and became even worse due to Maxwell´s habit of putting sugar lumps in his wine glass.
Sellem was happy to talk and always in a contagiously good mood. Probably a dozen years older than I was I found him to be an unusually stimulating acquaintance – witty and with astonishing insights, as well as a lighthearted, unpredictable humour emphasized by a, to my ears at least, peculiar and very strong French accent, his bottle-thick glasses, unvarnished, as well as his unkempt. wildly frizzled hair. A true bohemian artist and a healthy element among all the boring ”leftist intellectuals”, many of whom did not at all appreciate the anarchistic Sellem whose Gallery Saint Peter for Experimental and Marginal Art was opposite Lund´s Book Café, an ”independent and unsectarian left-wing bookstore specializing in society-oriented, radical and Marxist literature”.
Jean Sellem, who made his appearance in Lund sometime in the late sixties, had been affiliated with The Situationist International (SI), though this ”fellowship” had been disbanded in 1972. Already before that, several of its members had been excluded after being skeptically inclined towards the increasingly dogmatic, left-revolutionary direction in which the association was moving. When I met him, Jean Sellem seemed to be more attracted by the Fluxus movement, which also was some kind of artistic fellowship, but far more extensive, and cross-culturally inclined than the Situationist International. Fluxus had no formal membership, though many of the most respected artists at the time were considered to be Fluxus affiliated; for example, John Cage, Joseph Buys, Nam June Paik, Terry Reily, Öyvind Fahlström, Yoko Ono, Carolee Schneeman and Wolf Vostel. Like Sellem, they devoted themselves to conceptual art, but he had distanced himself from the celebrity image that flourished within Fluxus circles and was more attracted by a group that identified itself as SI 2, or Situationist Bauhaus, headed by Asger Jorn's brother Jørgen Nash. This so-called the Second Situationist International was more focused on art than The First Situationist International and found its center in the artistic collective Drakabygget just outside Örkelljunga in northern Skåne, my home district.
Sellem considered it to be fascinating that my father knew Jørgen Nash, something he confirmed when they met and Nash stated that he counted upon Axel Lundius, from in the local newspaper Norra Skåne, Northern Skåne, as ”one of us”. Sometime after I got to know Jean Sellem, he was involved in a complicated battle with Lund Municipality, which had decided to withdraw its cultural contribution to his gallery. After he had invited me to read a few of my short stories, Gottegrisen, The Sweet Tooth, and Det blödande barnet, The Bleeding Child, in his gallery, Sellem obviously counted me as a supporter and furthermore published two of my drawings in one of his magazines. Sellem was a quite assiduous publicist and everything that happened in his gallery was carefully documented and archived in his Archive for Experimental and Marginal Art.
One day when I entered his gallery, Jean Sellem came running towards me and shouted in his inimitable French-Swedish:
- Ah, Lundius! Come in, come in! Close the door quickly so the rabbit does not run away!
I did as he said and somewhat confused looked around the place. There was no rabbit in sight. The floor of the gallery's exhibition hall was covered with newspaper strips and in the middle of them was a large salad head that Sellem every morning bought at the Saluhallen, the town market. There was, however, no rabbit. The installation was part of an exhibition containing an ”imaginary” rabbit.
Sellem was, as always when I met him, in a brilliant mood and our conversation was occasionally interrupted by his chuckling laugh. He told me of an initiative, an art action, he was staging together with a new-found friend of his, the graphic artist Andrzej Ploski, who recently had arrived from Kielce in Poland. Ploski had some problems with the Artists' National Association (KRO) and Sellem had difficulties with the municipality. On one of the gallery's display windows he had in large letters written: ”Censored by S [the Social Democrats] and M [the Moderates, a right-wing political party] in Lund.” Since Sellem was no longer receiving cultural support from the municipality, he now planned to print his own banknotes and sell them for ten Swedish crowns apiece, in support of his gallery.
The banknotes were to be designed by Ploski and issued by something they called The Lundada Bank and referred to as ren money, i.e. clean money. Ren is a word that can be interpreted as both ”clean” and ”reindeer” and the banknotes thus referred to the municipality's Social Democratic chairman, Birger Rehn. The bank's motto would be printed on the banknotes: Enighet ger stryk. Alla för alla, alla för ren, a play on words that is almost impossible to translate. A direct translation would by ”Unity results in a beating. One for all, all for Rehn”. In those days Swedish banknotes carried the caption Hinc robur et securitas, Latin for ”hence strength and security”. However, the Swedish word for ”strength” could also mean ”a beating”. ”One for all, all for one” was, of course, the motto for The Three Musketeers, which in Swedish becomes en för alla, alla för en, though Sellem changed ”one”, en, for ren, ”reindeer”, the name of the municipality´s chairman., Birger Rehn.
Sellem also worked on a book with sixteen full-page engravings by Andrzej Ploski. They were thinking of calling their book Lundius, Commedia dell´arte and Sellem now wondered if it was OK for me and my relatives if they used our family name. I explained that it certainly did not matter at all to my relatives, they would rather like it. When the book was published, Sellem gave me several copies of it, as well as a number of posters that my father sent to his brothers and my cousins. He framed his own copy and hung it in the entrance to my childhood home.
Through the books Mats Olin made me buy and my acquaintance with Jean Sellem, I became increasingly interested in the Situationists. Before he ended up in Lund, Sellem had drifted around in Europe, mostly making his living as a sidewalk artist. He had spent quite a long time in Germany where he had a daughter, Marie-Lou Sellem, who now is a fairly well-known actress, especially as she made a career in television where she has starred in several films and series. After his time in Germany, Sellem studied at an art school in Copenhagen. Sellem told me that some time afterward he had in Finland found that he could live on selling his own art, something that worried him and made him relinquish his own income-generating artistic creativity and in a truly Situationist spirit instead began dedicating his time to inspire and support other artists to create ”situations” which could awaken people to discern the ”real state of life”.
Jean Sellem came to Sweden and Lund, became fond of the small university town where he met and fell in love with Marie Sjöberg, who became his assistant, photographer, and all-arounder. Together they did between 1970 and 1982 administer Gallery Saint Peter. When I wondered what he was living on, Sellem explained that until now the Lund Municipality had willingly supported him and provided a yearly grant to his gallery, furthermore, he could count upon the support of his co-worker, Marie, who worked as a night nurse at Lund's hospital. When I asked him if his way of life was in accordance with the Situationist ideal, Sellem explained that this was how he interpreted it.
Until 1972, Guy Debord (1931-1994) had been the Situationists´ secretary, strategist, philosopher and disciplinarian, who regularly accepted or excluded members from an association he refused to call ”organization”. The movement, or whatever it could be called, was founded in 1957 under the name Situationist International (SI). Its ”ideology” was in 1960 established in a Manifesto, which introduction stated:
The existing framework cannot subdue the new human force that is increasing day by day alongside the irrisistible development of technology and the dissatisfaction of its possible uses in our senseless social life.
The Situationists had experienced the emergence of oppressive totalitarian states, World War II's devastating catastrophe culminating in the industrially efficient slaughter within extermination camps and the atomic bombs' effective eradication of human life. The War´s aftermath meant in several European countries abject misery, which however was soon followed by a rapidly improving economy, while nations experienced repression under direct Soviet rule or communist minion regimes. It was a time marked by doubts, worries, and protests, accompanied by alternative art in the form of free jazz, abstract expressionist painting and the dissolution of traditional storytelling techniques. The Situationist Manifesto stated that human slavery characterized by mind-numbing wage work only benefitted a few capitalists, supported by a commodity fetishism that has replaced ”real” life with an ever-increasing, frantic consumption of commodities, which quantity overshadowed and destroyed their quality. The Situationists wanted every person to become an artist in charge of her/his own life, rather than remaining as an alienated cog in a machinery that produced commodities that no one actually needed.
We must liberate our inherent creative power, let loose our playfulness. Turn life into a feast. Let our own imagination, render self-proclaimed ”experts” redundant, expose their true nature as simple lackeys in the service of ruthless capitalists. Instead of being entangled in the net of commercially conditioned manipulations, each and every one of us should be offered an opportunity to become an ”amateur expert”, members of a richer, more playful, more open society, instead of being demeaned and humiliated as a hapless consumers/producers.
There is a life after birth! Be realistic, demand the impossible! They buy your happiness, steal it back! Depression is counter-revolutionary! The boss needs you, you don't need him! Stalinism is a rotten corpse! Prohibit prohibition! The beach is under the asphalt!
A new openness could be manifested through the creation of ”situations”. A first step would be to free art from its misappropriation and exploitation by market forces, which by pricing it has transformed artistic expression into a commodity. An urgent action/situation would according to the Situationist Manifesto be to carry out a spectacular coup against an institution which for The Situationists was the epitome of oppressive State bureaucracy´s ongoing attempts to equalize and neutralise art, science, and education by transforming them into subservient slaves of a centralized, controlling society where everything has been provided with a monetary value. Where everything is up for sale.
A first step would be to occupy UNESCO, The United Nations Organization for Science, Education, and Culture, which has its headquarters in Paris. A huge, sumptuous building containing a select group of highly-paid “experts”, who decide what kind of “culture” may be deemed worthy of global support. A situation recommended by the Situationist Manifesto would be to use the UNESCO headquarters for the announcement of a proclamation that invited the people of the world to participate in the creation of a human existence, characterized by trust, love, and imagination.
Such a negative view of UNESCO and the commercial valuation of art seemed to be contradicted by a large painting by Asger Jorn, which I used to pass in one of UNESCO's large foyers when I ten years ago functioned as an insignificant cog within the Organization's vast machinery. The painting was purchased in 1958, the same year when UNESCO's stately headquarters were opened in Pars. The Danish artist Asger Jorn was a good friend of Guy Debord and one of the initiators of the Situationist International.
Asger Jorn was already making money on his art and through the years he became an important driving force behind and a significant financier of various Situationist activities. Asger Jorn (1914-1873), whose original name was Asger Oluf Jørgensen, was an amazingly energetic and multifaceted Jack of all Trades. Twenty-two years old, he had scraped together enough money to buy a motorcycle and use it for traveling to Paris to study art under the famous Vasily Kandinsky. However, Kandinsky turned out to be severely depressed, tired, old and poor. Instead, Jorn began studying for Fernand Léger and eventually became acquainted with the renowned, constructivist architect Le Courbusier. Together with Courbusier Asger Jorn worked on the decoration of the Temps Noveaux Pavilion, which was part of the 1937 legendary World Exhibition.
After admiring Le Courbusier, Jorn soon came to regard his ”misanthropic homes” as dreary and sterile places. Above all, he found the Functionalism that Le Courbusier advocated to be a force that hindered and circumscribed the all-encompassing experience and appreciation of life and imagination that true art should contribute to. A release of each individual's creativity. All people should be provided with opportunities to contribute to the growth and change of their local environment. Cities ought to become living organisms, not solidified in pre-established forms and systems, but dynamic and changeable in symbiosis with the people living and working within them. Jorn came to regard Le Courbusier's Plan Voisin from 1925, a proposal to rebuild large parts of the centre of Paris, as an absolute abomination, a perfect antithesis to his own urban thinking.
After returning to Denmark, Jorn immersed himself in studies of magic and ancient Nordic art. During the war, he joined the Danish resistance movement and contributed with several articles to Helhesten, a magazine paying hommage to folk art, Nordic paganism and uncontrolled spontaneity. Helhesten, The Horse of Hell, was a Danish supernatural creature, three-legged and pitch black it appeared on moonless nights in the vicinity of graveyards. Those who were unfortunate enough to encounter this lugubrious horse were sure to die shortly after the confrontation. By naming their magazine after a threatening apparition the artists who contributed to it wanted to suggest that their art was a deadly threat to the occupying Nazis. During the War, Jorn also translated Kafka into Danish and began to collect a large number of photographs that eventually became an archive he named 10,000 years of Nordic Folk Art.
After the War, Asger Jorn resumed his restless travels and made contact with artists around the world. His abstract paintings sold well and progressively he became quite well known. At Café Notre Dame in Paris, he did in 1948, together with the author Christan Dotremont and the artist Constant, a pseudonym for Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys, establish the artist group CoBrA. The name was constructed by the first letters of the artists´ hometowns; Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam. Shortly afterward, the Dutch artists Karel Appel and Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo (Corneille) joined the group. They already shared an apartment with Constant. In their Manifesto, CoBrA declared that their spontaneous art was intended as a denial of the decadence of European art, which had begun during the Renaissance. They wanted to counteract all specialization and ”civilized art forms” and instead support a ”direct” primitive and childish art, based on a free and joyful collaboration between material, imagination, and technology. Their art would be equivalent to ”inhibition-free well-being”. CoBrA had a major impact, but the group only remained united for a few years. One of the reasons for its dissolution was that Asger Jorn began an intimate relationship with Constant's wife.
After CoBrA was disbanded in 1951, Asger Jorn returned to Denmark, depressed and severely ill with tuberculosis. However, in 1953 he managed to regain his health and stamina. Jorn had become interested in pottery and moved to the coastal city of Albissola Marina in Liguria, the seat of the legendary pottery company Giuseppe Mazzotti Manifattura Ceramiche founded in 1903 and became, after being recognized by Futurist leader Tommaso Marinetti, a production centre for futuristic fine arts and craftsmanship. Soon a number of artists gathered around Asger Jorn, among them Constant, who had forgiven his former friend´s elopement with his wife. Jorn was by now married to Constant's ex-wife, Matie van Domselaer, with whom he had two children.
Constant began working on an urbanization project he called The New Babylon and elaborated large architectural models through which he tried to create the dynamic urban landscapes he often discussed with Asger Jorn.
As usual, Asger Jorn within a short timespan established stimulating contacts with local artists. One of them was the chemist and multi-worker Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio, who in Alba, a mile north of Albissola Marina, owned an industrial plant producing herbal sweets and remedies.
Pinot-Gallizio was a left-wing politician and put Constant in touch with the leaders of a Romani camp, where they together with the residents began to experiment with realizing their ideas of alternative urbanism, within which individual´s creative powers would contribute to the creation of a dynamic society. Constant was musically talented. He was a skilled violinist and guitarist and had early on become fascinated by gypsy music, which led him to learn various improvisation techniques from the Romani and to play the cimbalom (tsymbaly).
In his Alba factory, Pinot-Gallizo developed, in collaboration with his son and Asger Jorn, something he called Pittura industriale, Industrial Art Production. With the help of various machines and innovative techniques he did together with a local workforce create up to 70 metres long canvases, filled with spontaneously created art. These ”pieces of art” were then sold by the metre as fabric goods.
Later on, Pinot-Gallizio created within art galleries in Turin, Paris, and Amsterdam a kind of ”environments” – a ”raw” ambient art he called Cavernas dell´antimateria, Caves of Antimatter. Gallery visitors were invited to move within a maze of painted canvases where they were surprised by unexpected ”situations”.
Soon artists from the global art world became attracted by Albissola Marina, among them Asger Jorn's friends from Paris – Guy Debord and his wife Michèle Bernstein. They were among the leaders of a group called Lettrists, a movement that intended to trace the origins of human thinking and action. By breaking down the language into its smallest units; moaning, sighing, screaming and changing the alphabet into ”primordial” signs and symbols, they wanted to create building blocks for the build-up of new, more spontaneous, personal and free modes of expression.
Lettrism was created by like-minded young people in post-war Paris, within bars, cheap restaurants, and shabby hotels. In August 1945, twenty-year-old Isidore Goldstein arrived in Paris, after spending six weeks traveling through post-war Europe from his Romanian hometown Botşani. With him, Isidore Goldstein brought a wealth of poems and writings inspired by his idol and compatriot Tristan Tzara (Samuel Rosenstock), who in 1916 in Zurich, together with the German Hugo Ball, had founded the famed Dada movement.
Isidore intended to shock and offend everyone. Already a few months after his arrival in Paris he was thrown out of Theatre du Vieux-Colombier, where a play by Tzara was performed. Isidore had several times interrupted the performance by roaring: ”Dada is dead! Lettrism has taken its place”. Scandals quickly erupted around him. In 1949, Isidore had managed to get a novel published, Isou ou la mécanique des femmes, Isou, or the Mechanics of Women. This autobiographical novel was a tribute to sixteen-year-old and later concept artist Rhea Sue Sanders. The scandal was caused by the fact that Isidore Goldstein claimed that simultaneously with his mistress he had for four years made love to no less than 175 women and if time and space permitted it he could describe each act in great detail. Isisdore Goldstein was fined 2,000 francs, sentenced to eight months imprisonment and the court decided that all existing copies of the book should be immediately destroyed. However, after a month the prison sentence was suspended.
After two years in Paris, Isidore Isou, as Goldstein now called himself, had established himself as a significant culture personality and the prestigious publishing house Gallimard published two of his books: Introduction à une nouvelle poésie et à une nouvelle musique, Introduction to a New Poetry and a New Music and L'Agrégation d'un nom et d'un messie, The Merging of a Name and a Messiah.
After six years in Paris, Isou began to express himself through film. Traté de bave et d´éternité, Treaty of Mucus and Eternity, which was divided into three parts. The first, called The Principle, depicted how people moved along Parisian streets, accompanied by excerpts from a lecture on film. The second part, The Development, described a romantic meeting between a man and a woman and consisted entirely of clips from other films. The third ”chapter” was called The Evidence and was entirely composed of abstract imagery, including so-called leaders, i.e. sequences of numbers that were used starting strips for films. Not many first-time visitors succeeded in enduring the entire screening and left the theatre under loud protests. When the film was later presented during the Cannes Film Festival, the influential Jean Cocteu watched and appreciated Traté de bave et d´éternité, making sure it won first prize in a newly established film category – The Best Avant-garde Performance.
Isou's incomprehensible film was based on two Lettrist concepts, which later were further developed by the Situationists – détournement and dérive. The first concept could possibly be translated as ”return/bringing back” and meant that artists made use of images and expressions manufactured by the so-called Mass Society, which had been created by capitalism and the bourgeoisie. Artists destroyed, cut up, and manipulated all kinds of imagery in such a way that it came to transmit an ”alternative world view”. Asger Jorn explained the détournement process as a unique form of innovation: ”Only those who are capable of disparaging generally accepted opinions will be able to create new values.” Situationist artists used advertisements, comic books, porn magazines, B-movies, kitsch and trashy art. They cut them up, united the pieces, added new sentences and hints and then published the results in magazines, as posters, or movies.
Asger Jorn created new, critical artwork Peinture's modifiées, Modified paintings, meaning that he manipulated, changed and painted over cheap artwork he had bought in flea markets.
A possible translation of dérive might be ”drifting”. This meant that you wandered aimlessly within an urban landscape, without a set goal and any intense involvement. Maybe akin to the introduction to Christopher Isherwood´s Goodbye to Berlin: ”I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking.” A ”therapeutic” approach aimed at clearing your brain from its constant struggle to organize and subordinate impressions within logical frameworks.
During her time as an art and design student, my oldest daughter became inspired by dérive, especially as it was expressed by English Psychogeographers. She used city maps to draw in random red lines, which during town itineraries had to be followed as closely as possible, regardless of the obstacles you might encounter. She also designed an Urbilabe, a kind of ”modified compass” manipulated through the introduction of various components, giving different directions. Her Urbilabe was intended to inspire ”its users to explore an urban landscape in a spontaneous and inspiring manner.”
A year after the premiere of Isou's first movie, his six-year-younger adept Guy Debord presented an even more incomprehensible film – Hurlements a faveur de Sade, Screams in Favour of de Sade. A movie entirely devoid of pictures. The flickering movie screen remained white during readings from a book Isou had written about film, as well as detached dialogues from John Ford's Rio Grande, recitations from James Joyce´s Finnegans Wake, as well as the Code civil des Français. During longer breaks between the readings, the screen remained completely black. It was also blackened during the last twenty minutes of this quite patience-demanding presentation.
While making the film, Debord was responsible for the Lettrist magazine Potlatch. The word means ”give away” and denoted major events during which indigenous people along the west coast of North America accompanied by dance and partying gave away large portions of their property.
The magazine Potlatch was issued on a monthly basis and distributed free of charge. Each number was initiated by the words:
All texts presented in Potlach can be freely reproduced, imitated and/or partially quoted without any reference whatsoever to the original source.
Soon there came a break between Isou and Debord. They were both complicated personalities and began to attack each other in various writings. Especially Isou had become utterly annoyed by Debord and his Situationist International, which he described as a neo-Nazi organization.
In the summer of 1957, Guy Debord, his wife Michèle Bernstein, as well as the English psychogeographer Ralph Romney visited Asger Jorn and his Italian counterparts within an artist community Jorn had established in Albissola Marina as part of something they called MIBI, or The International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus. Asger Jorn's good friend, the young philosophy student Piero Simondo, had an aunt who owned a small hotel in the village of Cosio d´Aroscia and it was there that the Situationist International (SI) was established amidst extensive wine-drinking and violent discussions.
During the twelve and a half years of the organization´s existence, it had at most seventy-four members (63 men and 11 women). Despite its limited membership SI came to have a major impact and inspired a wide variety of artists, writers, and philosophers. Guy Debord, who delved deeper into philosophy and politics, believed that SI's ultimate goal could not be to create experimental and engaging artworks/situations without producing a truly revolutionary consciousness. Capitalist society, and to the same or even higher degree, state capitalist systems like those of the Soviet Union and China, had vanquished all attempts to challenge the hegemony of commercialism and bureaucracy. The bourgeois class had appropriated avant-garde culture, put a price tag on all art and thus turned it into a commodity. Debord's conclusion was to exclude all artists from the group, something that did not prevent him from continuing to receive financial support from a successful artist like Asger Jorn.
Even if the Situationists were critical of prevailing political and social systems and advocated an ”entirely new” view of life and culture, they were nevertheless children of their time. In the United States, we find The Beat Generation and Great Britain had its Angry Young Men, just to mention two of all those ”alternative movements” that had sprung up all over the world. Several of these movements criticized the current, dominant society, though, at least initially, most of them had been generally ”aesthetically” inclined. However, most of the members of the governing segment of society were deeplý worried by the wars in Algeria and Vietnam, as well as other ”resistance movements” in the Third World. Some intellectuals approved of what they considered to be the creation of ”social alternatives” in ”socialist” societies, like those established in Cuba or China. They immersed themselves in Marx and Hegel while integrating their reading and thinking in writings and actions.
Debord stated that the current Capitalism, as well as Communist totalitarian systems, were manifestations of what he called The Society of the Spectacle, a state in which commodity fetishism's ”spectacle” had reifacted all human relations.
The concept of Warenfetischismus, Commodity Fetishism, was coined by Karl Marx in an effort to describe how Europeans view consumer goods as ”things which, by their characteristics, satisfy all forms of human needs.” Goods have become sources of human satisfaction and people no longer understand that they really are – results of how human labour has transformed natural resources into consumer goods. Our unwavering desire for goods and services has turned them into something desirable, something almost divine, endowed with an existence of their own, beyond our everyday lives:
A commodity appears at first sight as an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties. So far as its is a value in use, there is nothing mysterious about it, whether we consider it from the point of view that by its properties it satisfies human needs, or that it first takes on these properties as the product of human labour. It is absolutely clear that, by his activity, man changes the forms of the materials of nature in sucha way as to make them useful to him. The form of wood, for instance, is altered if a table is made out of it. Nevertheless the table continues to be wood, an ordinary sensuous thing. But as soon as it emerges as a commodity, it changes into a thing which transcends sensuousness. It not only stands with it feet on the ground, but in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and evolves out of its wooden brain grotesque ideas, far more wonderful than if it were to begin dancing of its own free will.
The word reification also derives from Marx. It was created from the German Verdinglichung, ”making into a thing”, a description of how we humans have come to regard other creatures as if they were things. Thereby have social relations also been transformed into “things”, more akin to products/commodities than shared, unifying ideas. We imagine that happiness, knowledge, prestige, and togetherness can be bought for money, just as if they were goods.
According to Guy Debord, capitalism had transformed our society in such a manner that our thinking and our emotions have become experiences that can be bought and sold. What Debord labels as a Society of the Spectacle is an order of things in which our existence has been transformed into a business transaction. We have wiped out our individuality, our imagination, and playfulness only to become full-time consumers. Like a group of passive onlookers, we soak in everything offered by a manipulative and invariably present, capitalist system, which at the same time unabashedly oppresses and subverts us under an impersonal, state-controlled bureaucracy. Debord summarized The Society of the Spectacle in five points:
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Uninterrupted technical renewal.
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Total integration of the State and the economy.
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Secrecy of how this manipulation is carried out.
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Dispersion of lies that cannot be contested.
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The transformation of our existence into an eternal and unaffected “now”. History and philosophy have lost their significance.
The Society of the Spectacle must be combated and broken down from within, through the creation of mind-boggling, mind-altering situations. However, in order to succeed in doing so, the Situationist must place her/himself beside the current consumer society. Herein lies one of the great paradoxes of the movement.
Guy Debord considered that wage labor chained us to the murderous bureaucracy of capitalism. Early on in his youth, he scribbled on a wall: Ne Travaillez Jamais, never work. Nevertheless, his wives worked. Debord married twice and had several mistresses. For example, Michèle Bernstein sustained them both for a time by writing horoscopes for racehorses. When a friend visited Debord and his second wife, the poet, linguist, and historian Alice Becker-Ho, in the hotel apartment where they lived, the guest noticed that Alice did all the housework. Debord declared: ”She washes up the dishes while I make a revolution.”
Debord “worked” by thinking and writing and was then economically supported by others, including Asger Jorn. Since 1971, when he met Debord, until his death in 1990, the publisher and film producer Gérard Lebovici constituted Debord's most important emotional and financial support. Although he interacted with wealthy celebrities Lebovici had an anarchic inclination that directed him to critical thinkers like Debord. Unfortunately, Lebovici was also attracted by people from criminal circles. On March 7, 1984, he was found dead in his car in a garage on Avenue Foch not far from the Arc de Triomphe. Someone had four days earlier, at short range, shot him with four bullets in the back of his head. The murder remained unsolved. Guy Debord, who naturally became very agitated by the murder, retreated to a village in the Loire Valley, where he ten years later committed suicide through a gunshot in his mouth. He had then for several years been seriously ill in the suites after lifelong alcoholism.'
As early as 1960, Guy Debord, who despite the Situationist gospel of unrestricted freedom, often acted as the movement´s dictator, had dispelled Pinot-Gallizio and several German artists. During The fifth Situationist Conference, which was celebrated in the Swedish town of Gothenburg in 1962, there came to an open conflict between the majority of the practicing artists and a group of ”theorists” who supported Debord. As a result, most of the SI artists, including an artist group called SPUR with its centre in Munich, joined Asger Jorn's brother Jørgen Nash, who recently had established an artist community called Drakabygget. There they retained their beliefs in art as a life-changing activity, but they were more of apolitical anarchists than theoretically inclined activists. After the Gothenburg Conference, only twenty-five of SI's seventy-four members remained in the Situationist International.
Asger Jorn did, despite his increased international recognition and income, continue to be an anarchist in constant conflict with the art establishment. For example, he found the practice of rewarding works of art with prestigious prizes to be utterly absurd and when The Guggenheim Museum in New York decided to award him with the 1964 International Award for his painting Dead Drunk Danes, he declined the reward and sent a telegram to the chairman of the jury in which he declared that he did not want to participate in its ”ridiculous game”.
Jorn had high ambitions and was a diligent writer trying to ”reconstruct philosophy from an artist's perspective”. Accordingly, he refuted on Kirkegaard's theories about a contradiction between an aesthetic and an ethical worldview. He even ventured into an attack on Niels Bohr's epoch-making work on quantum mechanics and further on developed the so-called triolectics, a concept that I do not understand much of, though it has been explained as a ”many-valued”, logical system that, in addition to the value concepts of ”true” and ”false” counts upon a third, indefinite value. It does apparently build upon the mathematician Jules Henri Poincaré´s (1854-1912) assumption that intuition provides the foundation for all of the mathematics
Asger Jorn was an esteemed guest at his brother's Drakabygge. One member of the art commune described Jørgen Nash's anticipation of Asger Jorn's arrival:
Everything was in a whirl of excitement, when Nash’s famous brother came to “Drakabygget”. Nash treated it as if God Almighty was on the way. All the time it sounded “my brother, my brother”. Sometimes I thought, if he says “my brother” one more time, I´ll strangle him.
Jørgen Nash has by himself and others been described as a ”happy rebel”. Jean Sellem told me that he thought Nash to be a better artist than his brother Asger Jorn, who in his art tends to be gloomier and more serious than his light-hearted, ”life-affirmative” brother. They had a difficult childhood, being six siblings whose mother became a widow after her husband died in a car accident. Nash and Jorn started painting early and during the German occupation of Denmark, they both became involved in the Danish resistance movement. Nash escaped to Sweden where he began his career as an ”action poet”.
His most notorious action was to cut off the head of the famous Little Mermaid in Copenhagen´s harbour. Nash claimed that he had placed it in a hatbox and buried it in peat bog close to the Danish seaside resort Tisvilde. The head has never been recovered, despite the fact that Nash underwent lengthy interrogations by the murder squad of the Danish police. Nash was not convicted of his confessed crime since the Police considered him to be ”untrustworthy” and they could consequently not rely on any of his numerous and contradictory acknowledgments.
My father told me about various situations staged by Drakabygget´s artist collective. In his capacity as editorial secretary and later editor-in-chief of the local newspaper, he was often notified about what they were up to. For example, when the artist Finn Sørensen as an act of ”protest against the brutality in the world” let himself be buried alive in a ventilated coffin, provided with a telephone. The day after the solemn burial act, Sørensen and his coffin were dug up by the local police. Sørensen was taken to St. Mary's Mental Hospital in Helsingborg, where a doctor explained that the artist was in need of immediate and enforced mental care.
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In 1975, Jens Jörgen Thorsen and Jörgen Nash appeared in the Danish Parliament wearing striped prison suits and outfitted with heavy iron chains, spreading leaflets protesting against the ”formal attacks” on the freedom of expression, which they considered had smitened Thorsen's planned movie about Jesus´s sex life.
When it comes to Thorsen, I find it difficult to support the views of Drakabygget. From time to time, both theirs and the ideology of the Situationist International could, unfortunately, appear as being both pornographic and misogynic. Thorson's 1970 movie Quiet Days in Clichy was based on Henry Miller´s in my opinion worst novel of the same name. Miller is a skilled stylist and I have with great interest read several of his novels and essays, though in that short novel his occasional sensationalism, misogyny, and egocentrism are at their absolute worst. Thorsen's film followed Miller's novel quite faithfully and is thus both annoying and bad, especially due to its pitiful and exploitative view of women.
Miller and Thorson stated they intended to reveal all the falsehood and emptiness that dominate life in capitalist societies and instead explore how something as natural as sex has been turned into a taboo and consumer goods. Despite this probably benevolent purpose, I fully agree with author Jeanette Winterson when she, in a review of Fredrick Turner's hagiography Renegade: Henry Miller and the Making of Tropic of Cancer, pours her enraged wit over both Turner and Miller:
Miller the renegade wanted his body slaves like any other capitalist — and as cheaply as possible. When he could not pay, Miller the man and Miller the fictional creation work out how to cheat women with romance. What they could not buy they stole.
The Situationists have been accused of being an exclusive ”men's club” and there might actually be some truth to that. Their magazines were filled with scantily dressed or naked ladies who had been cut out from porn magazines and provided with thought-provoking, or challenging, speech bubbles, initiatives devoid of any worries about the fact that such ”provocations” could be perceived as abusive to women. In addition, for a large part of their lives, several Situationists, like Debord, Jorn, and Nash, were known to be notorious ”women chasers” and famous Situationists like Raoul Vaneigem, Jean-Pierre Bouyoux, and Alexander Trocchi, did under pseudonyms publish rude pornographic novels. Women like Michèle Bernstein, married to Guy Debord, and Jacqueline de Jong, married to Asger Jorn, were excellent writers and of great importance for the formulation of Situationist theses and texts. Nevertheless, Bernstein has later stated that women like her were subordinates to their husbands and supporting actors to male primadonnas.
Thorson's planned movie about Jesus' sex life was blatantly pornographic. The Danish Film Institute promised financial support and a couple of scenes were filmed in Spain and elsewhere. However, wild protests became extensive even before the filming could begin in earnest. In Great Britain, the Vatican and the United States, various religious groups raged against the endeavour, something that of course was expected by Thorsen who considered the hullabaloo to be excellent publicity. The screenplay for the film had already been published as a book and Jørgen Nash gave my father a copy. It turned out to be nothing more than badly written and degrading pornography. Thorsen was far from being a skilled author and the obvious purpose of the entire, tasteless business was to shock as many people as possible, another was probably to make a profit from the unabashed provocation. The Danish Film Institute withdrew its support and Thorsen enjoyed playing the role as victim of Western censorship.
At Drakabygget, Jørgen Nash's goal was to combine art with agriculture. Cows, sheep, pigs, chickens, and horses were purchased and he made ambitious plans for the future. Extensive drainage ditches were dug to receive Government grants, artworks were exchanged for food and gasoline, although far too much of the expenditure was dependent on Asger Jorn's financial support and he soon tired of keeping the poorly planned agricultural endeavour on its feet. Jørgen Nash was definitely not a farmer and the bohemian members of the artist commune were unwilling to engage in any agricultural activities. They sold art to keep the messy economy going. Over time, artists such as Hardy Strid, Nash's third wife Liz Zwick and Yoshio Nakajima managed to get well paid for their paintings, as did Jørgen, who occasionally signed his artwork with ”Jorn”, to increase the market value.
Drakabygget´s agricultural activities were discontinued, but after many years of balancing on the brink of bankruptcy, Nash's economy gradually improved. Finally, he could to an author who interviewed him in 1999, proudly declare that
I am the poor boy who became a millionaire. But up to the age of 60, I had perpetual problems with surviving.
He posed in front of a painting of the Danish fifteenth-century astronomer Tycho Brahe commissioned and paid for by an art collector at USD 20,000. On the portrait, Nash had attached a three-dimensional nose of genuine silver. He explained:
– Tycho was a goat! He had over 200 children! However, one of the cuckold husbands brought with him five henchmen to Tycho´s castle, Uranienborg, where they cut off the astronomer´s nose. To conceal his disability, at least to some extent, Tycho acquired a silver nose. [When Tycho Brahe's tomb in 2010 was opened in Prague it was found that the nose had actually been made of brass].
Two years before Jørgen Nash died, the Drakabyggets Konsthall Foundation was inaugurated in 2002, but the trust went bankrupt in 2014 and all its collected artwork was sold. Recently, during a visit to my childhood town, the nearby Hässleholm, I saw an advertisement in the display window of the Savings Bank:
Former Drakabygget´s Art Gallery in Örkelljunga is up for sale! It is a completely renovated and bright exhibition hall of about 215 sqm. At the adjacent building there are six garages at the ground floor and a modern apartment upstairs. The entire space can e.g. be converted into apartments.
In Nash's and Jorn's birthplace, the Danish town of Silkeborg, Asger Jorn's museum has, however, become a success. The paintings on display have been valued at around USD 40 million.
Jean Sellem's gallery was closed down. The Municipality ceased to support him and where the gallery was located there is now a hairdressing salon. In his defense, I might say that Jean Sellem's manner of thinking and ideas about art have been important to me and his cultural significance was for many others certainly at least as stimulating as other cultural initiatives supported by the Municipality of Lund.
I am absolutely convinced that within the cultural climate we now live in, no municipal government, and definitely not someone with a Swedish Democratic Party (a deplorably ever-increasing populist party) majority, would support a happy anarchist like Jean Sellem. He was not someone who tried to shock his fellow human beings by attacking their political or religious beliefs. Jean Sellem is a cheerful homo ludens, a playful man, who wants us to be that as well. We should look at life with a more open and light-hearted point of view than the one our everyday confrontations with an impersonal bureaucracy and all kinds of problems lock us up in.
I remember how Sellem once when I looked into his gallery was unusually excited. His good friend Andrzej Ploski had more or less unwittingly created a great turmoil in the centre of Lund. The town´s art gallery was displaying works by someone Sellem labeled as a ”Stalinist fascist”, the East German artist Willi Sitte, something that annoyed the eastern European refugee Ploski, who att the same time considered himself to be poorly treated by KRO, The National Artist Association.
Sellem thought Ploski's ”action” was quite amusing, though I was somewhat hesitant about appreciating Ploski´s prank. It happened in the midst of a time when many Europeans were in constant fear of threatening terrorist attacks, not as now by Islamists, but by political terror groups such as the IRA from Ireland, the ETA from the Basque Country, the RAF from Germany and Italy's Brigate Rosse. Ploski had intended to hand over a make-believe bomb to Konsthallen, The Municipal Art Gallery. A package on which he in large letters had written BOMB. When no one was to be found there and Konsthallen appeared to be closed for lunch he placed his package in front of the entrance doors and went to eat at a restaurant close by. When Ploski got the bill he asked the management of the reputed restaurant to send it to KRO. Of course, this was considered to be a nuisance, if not sheer rudeness. Nevertheless after Ploski had been forced to pay for his expensive lunch he received a certificate from Stäket, i.e. the restaurant, that he initially had asked it to send KRO the bill, With that statement in hand he went over to the office of Sydsvenska Dagbladet, the local newspaper, as a step further in his protest action.
On his way from Sydsvenska Dagbladet, they had not been particularly interested in Ploski's complaints, he found that the central square of Lund, Mårtenstorget, had been sealed off while bomb demolition experts, specially summoned from Copenhagen, had appeared equipped with a remote-controlled robot which now was busy removing his bomb package. It was then in a special vehicle taken from the scene. When the package had been opened during secure circumstances it was found to contain a rubber duck. Since Ploski had written his name and address on the package, he was arrested the same evening. I do not remember the consequences of his actions.
Although Sellem was amused by Ploski's Situationist action I do not think he himself would have been capable of doing anything slightly illegal. I cannot recall any police interventions in connection with Sellem's support to ”marginal and experimental art”. As I now remember Sellem, I recall my good friend Örjan, also he an industrious supporter of ”alternative” art, in his case it mainly about literature. While Sellem was working with his gallery, Örjan was a member of a punk band, Bostonvärk, which devoted itself to music, poetry, and happenings. Like Sellem, he was also a book publisher. The first book he published had no title and was an anthology compiled from anonymous contributions – drawings, poems, essays, and short stories. In it, I published my short story The Bleeding Child that I previously had read at Gallery St. Petri. Örjan also knew Jean Sellem and shared with him his optimism and belief in the transforming power of art.
In 2013, Örjan published a new edition of a book that Jean Sellem in 1981 had printed in eleven copies – Sweden Today. The new edition was produced by hand in 85 numbered copies, all of which were signed by Jan Sellem and sold to customers who had pre-ordered their copies. It is a hardcover book in large format with 1000 completely black pages: ”The result of Jean Sellem's long-standing research on the state of the nation.” Although many told Örjan it was a crazy endeavour to publish Sellem's book, the demand was great and the publisher is now constantly receiving inquiries on how to get hold of the unique book. Nevertheless, the 85 copies are sold out and the book will never be published again. Sweden Today remains listed on the editor´s homepage with the comment:
What is this? An ink bomb? A nihilistic descent into the Maelstream? An unique comment on contemporary Swedish everyday life? But ... all pages are completely black! Is the present situation really as bad as that? Probably, the author's analysis is undoubtedly quite clear and in his eloquence is difficult to dispute.
In spite of the difficult times that have befallen him Jean Sellem has kept his good mood. Marie and he have separated and their Archive for Experimental and Marginal Art has been scattered. Even worse is that such an aesthetically inclined man as Jean Sellem is now almost blind, he can only distinguish faces, images, and text from a short distance.
I find that my essay became much longer than I expected it to be. Something that might be expected while tackling such an intricate issue as the meaning of life. Jean Sellem's answer may partly be hidden within his Sweden Today and Örjan dealt with it in an interesting book he called Livets mening är en hägring, The Meaning of Life is a Mirage. These two books were the ultimate reason why I embarked on writing this blog entry. It is now time to end my long-winding journey along Faust´s and The Situationists' meandering paths. I finish with a question alluding to Nietschze's dictum:
It is only as an aesthetic phenomenon that existence and the world are eternally justified.
Burton Russell, Jeffrey (1986) Mephistopheles: The Devil in The Modern World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell. Chollet, Laurent (2004) Les situationnistes: L´utopie incarnée. Paris: Gallimard. Danchev, Alex (ed.) (2011) 100 Artists´ Manifestos: From the Futurists to the Stuckists. London: Penguin Classics. Debord, Guy (2002) Society of the Spectacle. Detroit: Black & Red. Ellmann, Richard (1988) Oscar Wilde. London: Penguin Books. Donne, John (2006) Selected Poems. London; Penguin Classics. Fazakerley, Gordon (1982) ”He was a Cannibal – About Asger Jorn”, https://www.fazakerley.dk/?page_id=160 Freud, Sigmund (2002) Civilization and its Discontents. London: Penguin Modern Classics. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (2005) Faust, Part I. Translated by David Constantine. London: Penguin Classics. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (2009) Faust, Part II. Translated by David Constantine. London: Penguin Classics. Hussey, Andrew (1972) The Life and Death of Guy Debord. London: Jonathan Cape. Isherwood, Christopher (1972) Goodbye to Berlin. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Modern Classics. Kierkegaard, Sören (1967) Stages on Life´s Way. New York: Schocken Books.Marx, Karl (1992) Capital: Volume One: A Critique of Political Economy. London: Penguin Classics. Nespolo, Ugo (2019) ”Situazionismo”, Art e Dossier, No. 394. Nietzsche, Friedrich (1994) The Birth of Tragedy: Out of the Spirit of Music. London: Penguin Classics. Safranski, Rüdiger (2017) Goethe: Life as a Work of Art. New York: Liveright. Sellem, Jean (2014) Sweden Today. Lund: Bakhåll. Wilde, Oscar (2010) The Picture of Dorian Gray. London: Penguin Classics. Winterson, Jeanette (2012) ”The Male Mystique of Henry Miller”, The New York Times, January16.
Sigmund Freud wrote in 1929 a reflection on how an individual's wishes are counteracted by society's demands and expectations. Civilization and its Discontent begins with an obviously undeniable claim:
It is impossible to resist the impression that people commonly apply false standards, seeking power, success and wealth for themselves and admiring them in others, while underrating what is truly valuable in life. Yet in passing such a general judgement one is in danger of forgetting the rich variety of the human world and its mental life.
Thus Freud established our pursuit of perfection as one of humanity's greatest scourges. If we do not find perfection in ourselves, we seek it in others. Consequences for not accomplishing great expectations might be dire for ourselves, as well as for those unable to live up to the requirements we are imposing upon them. However, it may at the same time be argued that pursuit of perfection has been a crucial driving force behind the achievements of individuals, as well as the entire humankind. It made us humans, turned as into ”civilized” creatures. By striving for something better, a perfect existence, we have changed the prerequisites for our existence. We have transformed nature into culture. By doing so we made ourselves, as well as others, imagining us as being ”superior” compared to what we once were. However, no one is perfect. Human perfection does not exist. Coercion and rectifications are not requirements for improvement, rather the opposite.
We judge others in accordance with what we perceive as their state of perfection. We compare them to role models – those perfect creatures we, and especially others, should emulate. Children are tormented by parents who compare them to the offspring of other families. “Look at Yvonne she is already a medical doctor. What are you? Look at Gustav he has become a millionaire. What have you become? What have you done other than neglecting your natural gifts and qualifications? You are a good-for-nothing, a slugger, a failure.”
Comparisons make their appearance early on in a child's life and might in a defenseless creature create feelings of shortcomings and inadequacy. S/he might start to consider her/himself as a loser. Someone who is different from ”everyone else”. An insecure girl or boy might imagine that s/he is an alien. That s/he was left on the doorstep; an orphaned changeling, especially if her/his father and mother got into the habit of comparing her/him to ”more successful” siblings.
Our idols are those who have ”succeeded”, become famous and successful – the very criteria for an idol. They are the ones we want to be, or rather – whom we want our life companions, our children, our employees, our superiors, to be. During my time in the United States, I marveled at the large number of children's and ”young adult´s” books that had been written and published about successful, admirable youngsters, in whose spirit the growing-up generation should act.
Here in Italy, the Catholic Church is constantly publishing stories about young saints brought up by wise men and women. Like Dominic Savio, who died as a 14-year-old student of St. Giovanni Bosco (1815-1888), founder of the Salesian Order, which purpose it was to take care of abandoned, or poor children and raise them to become rural - or industrial workers. San Bosco wrote an inspirational book about Dominic Savio, in which he portrayed him as an ideal for students and young Christians. All over the Catholic world, there are statues of Saint Bosco and Saint Dominic.
China had (has?) its absurd cult of the young soldier and cultural hero Lei Feng: ”Follow Comrade Lei Feng's example.”
The Soviet Union had its Pavlik Mozorov, who betrayed his regime-critical father. After the Soviet authorities had executed his erring father, Pavlik was murdered by his rightly upset relatives. Thirteen-year-old Pavlik became hailed by a great variety of poems, biographies, a symphony, an opera, and several movies. Virtually every social system seems to be creating its own youthful heroes. Beautiful young people who are too good to be true.
It is not only saints, athletics, revolutionary heroes and young geniuses who serve as role models. We are also harassed by something as general and abstract as ”everyone else”, or so-called ”normal persons”. Idiotic generalizations, mirrored by expressions such as ”we, the people” and other all-encompassing expressions of mob madness, which constantly is roaring all around us. Comparisons with Tom, Dick, and Harry have been nailed into our thick skulls, or deeply rooted within our brains. We are whipped through life until we on our deathbeds are forced to admit: “Past! Past! Oh, had I but enjoyed myself while I could have done so! but now it is too late.”
As a child and youngster, I was an enthusiastic reader of Swedish translations of an American comic magazine series called Classics Illustrated. Unfortunately, my mother once threw away my collection of comics while she clearing out our attic. There were Bang!, which featured exceptionally well-drawn comics translated from the French, as well as all my Donald Duck magazines. She probably thought I had put them up there because they no longer interested me. On the contrary, I treasured them all and wanted to keep them. The loss may not have been so great after all. If I now could revisit all those magazines I doubt I would be able to find retrieve the magic that once devoured me.
Among all the Classics Illustrated, Faust was probably my greatest reading experience. I returned to it again and again. Faust was actually the last number of the original Classics Illustrated series issued by the American Albert Lewis Kanter. This specific Faust issue was unique in the sense that it contained both the first and second parts of the Tragedy. Faust´s second part is considerably more difficult to access than its first part and it took me a long time before I could read it in the original. My grandfather had in his library a magnificent edition of Faust's first part, lavishly illustrated by a certain August von Kreling. I read it several times, but it was not until I read the second part in Britt G. Hallqvist's excellent Swedish translation and I finally got a grasp of the mighty work, which like other classics can be read several times and at every occasion be interpreted in a variety of ways. Goethe's Faust is occasionally heavy reading, though if digested with calm, patience and reflection it is quite thought-provoking.
Some years ago, I watched Aleksandr Sokurov's claustrophobic film Faust, which takes place in the early 19th century, within a small German, run-down town. I found some of it incomprehensible, though nonetheless, the movie became a near-hypnotically intense experience, with images etching themselves into my memory. A distorted, strange dream version that, in all its originality, provided an in-depth and unexpected angle to the Faustian story, which Sokurov. like in a Kafka story, limited within the boundaries of a small world, which suddenly opened up to unanticipated depths. Because of its strange allure Sokurov's version of Faust, Part I, although sometimes quite different from Goethe's story, is probably the interpretation, which in my opinion, comes closest to the great German author´s vision.
To me, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust – there are several other novels about the legendary or real Johann Georg Faust, who apparently lived between 1480 and 1540 – deals with the pursuit of perfection. The scientist/magician Faust pursues a single meaning/law governing our entire existence. In other words, he seeks God, the paragon for perfection.
The drama is launched in Heaven where Mephistopheles, who is either the Devil or a demon in his service, meets with God. However, before it all begins a Prelude takes place at a theatre where a performance is about to start. The salon is filling up, within a few minutes the curtain will rise. Grabbed by rampage fever, a Theatre Director, a Resident Poet and a Comic discuss what they expect from the show. The Director wants it to be a success, that the spectators will appreciate the spectacle and make others want to visit his theater so all performances will be sold out. The Poet does not really want to make a spectacle of his work. He has spent lonely days and nights labouring over his work. The Comic demands that the show will be entertaining, an unforgettable extravaganza.
Through the Prelude Goethe makes it clear that his drama is a fairy tale. That the tragedy's characters are not ”real” people, they are not even based on any existing models, neither contemporary nor historical. They are mere figurines, perhaps even dolls (during Goethe's time it was common to present the Faust legend as a Punch and Judy Show). His characters are fictitious, symbols within a Morality Play.
Mephistopheles is a liar. He hides Truth behind a web of lies, obscuring the fact that we ought to use our knowledge to help others. Instead, Mephistopheles teaches us that happiness comes from satisfying selfish urges. He preaches a gospel based on a search for well-being and success at the expense of others. To quench our sexual desires without respecting the feelings of others To exercise power by suppressing our fellow beings, to revel in the misfortune of the destitute and underdogs. He tells us that in our constant search for well-being and money, the use of cunning and fraud is quite OK.
It appears that Oscar Wilde in his The Picture of Dorian Gray introduced a Mephistophelean figure. in the shape of Lord Henry Wotton. An elegant gentleman who exposes ”wrong, fascinating, poisonous, delightful theories.” A charming conversator, a spiritual companion endowed with wit and a brilliant intellect. No wonder that the handsome, but naive, Dorian Gray is enchanted by Lord Wotton's dazzling arguments and soon puts his radical theories into practice, unaware of the fact that the decadent and bored Lord Wotton used them only to shock his surroundings and appear as an interesting fellow. Lord Wotton questions every established truth and tries to replace it with his own sybaritic pleasure doctrine:
”Life is not governed by will or intention. Life is a question of nerves, and fibres, and slowly built-up cells in which thought hides itself and passion has its dreams. You may fancy yourself safe, and think yourself strong. But a chance tone of colour in a room or a morning sky, a particular perfume that you had once loved and that brings sublte memories with it, a line from a piece of music that you had ceased to play – I tell you Dorian, that it is on things like these that our lives depend.”
It is only when Dorian Gray despairs about himself and the kind of existence he has become trapped within that he realizes that Lord Wotton's teachings were false and corrupting. His affirmation that temptations are beneficial became the reason why Dorian Gray sought satisfaction at the expense of other human beings, thereby destroying both his own life and that of others. Oscar Wilde appears to have been a believer in art and aesthetics, assuming that they had no other purpose than to provide pleasure, forgetfulness, and relief. As an escape from the grotesque reality Dorian Gray indulged himself in egocentric exuberance, Wilde made him seek relief in aesthetics, a deliverance from threatening anguish – elegant home décor, exquisite perfumes, beautiful clothes, fine art, good literature, beautiful music. However, a polished surface of taste and wonder lured an increasing disintegration that soon affected Dorian's mind. More or less unconsciously he is eaten up by bad conscience. Dorian Gray had imagined that an unrestrained existence was the same as complete freedom:
The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. Resist it, and your soul grows sick with longing for the things it has forbidden to itself, with desire for what its monstrous laws have made monstrous and unlawful.
But by deceiving others, Dorian deceived himself and the final consequence of his recklessness was a complete moral and physical downfall. Dorian Gray ended up despised and hated by himself and all those he had known and corrupted.
Oscar Wilde had not read Søren Kierkegaard's books, neither Stages on Life´s Way, nor Either/Or, in which the Danish philosopher analyzed the nature of the Aesthetic Man. A person imprisoned by a string of beads composed of enjoyable episodes. In fear of being deprived of his pleasures The Aesthetic Man focuses on specific moments that provide contentment and gratification, thereby his personality becomes fragmented. The Aesthetic Man loses itself, crackles. He becomes an actor, moving from set to set, from character to character. A liar who does not give himself time to reflect on his actions.
The Aesthetic Man fears and avoids moral obligations, chooses not to take any stand, neither to help others nor to assert his belief in an ideology. By following such a path The Aesthetic Man soon finds himself in a paralyzing state where only two choices remain – to take his own life or reconsider his attitude towards life. Unlike The Aesthetic Man, The Ethical Man accepts responsibility for his actions. For Kierkegaard, who in his own manner was a convinced Christian, morality meant relying on God – an unimaginable being, free from all human inhibitions and limitations created by time and space, eternal and infinite. An absurdity that our narrow intellect cannot comprehend. Thus, religion is entirely about faith and thus quite different from science. Faith is a personal experience, inexplicable and far removed from any scientific knowledge.
The truth that Mephistopheles preaches in Goethe's Faust is to live in accordance to a lie, a false illusion, similar to Lord Wotton's pleasure gospel. Mephistopheles' name probably comes from the Hebrew and the character was created in an effort to try to explain why it is so easy to lure even a good man from the path of righteousness. Each of us runs the risk of being tempted by our sensual desires. It thus becomes quite easy to imagine that besides God and his angels there exists a powerful and evil force – a Tempter. It was assumed that we are surrounded by demons, maybe a whole army of them, a legion of satanic devils. The leader of one of these wicked hordes became Mephistopheles, whose name consisted of the words מֵפִיץ (mêp̄îṣ) spreader and ט֫פֶל שֶׁ֫קֶר (tōp̄el šeqer) lie mason.
Like several other liars, Mephistopheles uses cynical charm. He is funny, all-knowing, and witty, just as a skilled manipulator should be. Mephisto is also a good and entertaining companion, as well as a good judge of human nature, well acquainted with diverse environments through which he moves like fish in the water. Of course, Mephistopheles does present himself to God as his loyal and submissive servant, yet his view of the world and human nature is light-years apart from the all-encompassing wisdom of the Ruler of the Universe.
Mephistopheles is incapable of comprehending the limitations of his ideology. He suffers from tunnel vision. A restriction that makes him perceive humans as governed by their basic instincts. According to Mephisto, human beings´ sole function is to satisfy their needs. Surrender to her/his insistent desires and ignore the well-being of others have to be the primary endeavor of any human being. Our Life-Lie.
The Egocentric is for Mephistopheles the essential idol of everything human. The Perfect Man whose every need has been met. The word idol comes from the Greek εἴδωλον, eidōlon, image, actually something that has no real existence. An interpretation of reality, a fantasy. An idol is a superhuman, a creature superior to all others. A Super Lie, a creation by The Master of All Lies – Mephistopheles.
The Superhuman perceives himself as free and independent. He needs no Master, no God. By believing that God is dead, the independent Superman imagines that he has been able to rid himself of human shortcomings, in particular of crippling compassion. However, Superman does not realize that the death of God means the Devil's victory. With God out of the game, Mephistopheles, The Master of All Lies and ultimate supporter of selfishness, will be sole Ruler the World.
Like many other full-fledged egocentrics, Mephistopheles is a gambler. Someone who believes that material gain brings happiness and success. Mephisto is incapable to refrain from making a hopeless bet with God, assuming that if he becomes victorious in such a desperate and relentless gamble, he will eventually gain world domination. The biased and limited Mephisto foolishly wants to convince God that He is wrong and thus make Him lose their constant struggle over human souls. However, Mephistopheles is actually a pathetic amateur compared to a master player like God, who has all the cards at hand and knows how to keep his trump card hidden until the game's final and decisive moment.
God is quite familiar with Faust, how he studies and struggles to reach the inner truth of life's meaning. Nevertheless, to arrive at any valid insight Faust has to leave his ivory tower and become exposed to the temptations inherent in human existence It is only after vanquishing earthly desires and thus prove that he cares for the wellbeing of others that Faust will become a true sage.
Without even realizing it, Mephistopheles acts as God's servant. By giving Faust access to earthly pleasures, bringing him deep down into the abode of desire, Mephistopheles assumes that by indulging Faust with sinful acts he will eventually gain control over Faust´s soul. However, God knows that Faust´s ability to learn from his mistakes will strengthen him, increase his knowledge and that Mephistopheles consequently will lose the bet. Faust will eventually be saved from Hell, but first, he has to be tempted by pleasures and earthly rewards. It is only after realizing into what abysses of despair selfish desire is able to push any human being, that Faust might mature and become a truly wise man:
What if he serves me in confusion now?
Soon I shall lead him into clarity.
A gardener knows the leafling nursling tree
With bloom and fruit will grace the years that follow.
The thrill of the drama, combined with the imagination and ingenuity Goethe spiced it with, rests in the reader's/spectator's doubts if Faust will nip at the baited hooks the wily Mephistopheles are dangling before him. However, Faust manages to wriggle himself out of the traps. Time after time Faust's undeviating curiosity saves him. His unquenchable thirst for knowledge – especially his dissatisfaction and struggle to improve everything – whips him onward. Faust does not become the full-fledged egoist Mephistopheles wants him to turn into.
Despite his good intentions, Faust does a lot of damage to others, mainly by never being fully satisfied. He constantly finds something to complain about. By the beginning of the play, Mephistopheles shows up at Faust´s place, at the very moment Faust is utterly disappointed with himself and his useless aspirations and thus plans to kill himself:
Alas, I´ve studied Philosophy,
The Law and Physics also,
More´s the pity, Divinity
With ardent effort, through and through
And here I am, about as wise
Today, poor fool, as I ever was.
My title is Master, Doctor even
And up the hill and down again
Nearly ten years wherever I please
I´ve led my pupils by the nose –
And see what we can know is: naught.
Faust looks around. He is enclosed by a book-packed study chamber, complete with useless alchemical devices, herbaria, stuffed animals and fetuses within glass jars; cramped, dusty and musty. Here he ended up, coming no further. As Jim Morrison sang:
This is the end, beautiful friend
This is the end, my only friend.
The end.
Faust has read and studied life but has not experienced it – the violence, the love, the pain, and the joy. In a despairing search for meaning, Faust has blindly pushed ahead into nothingness. Finally, he turned to magic, to superstition, dreams, and speculations. And then ... suddenly the gates of Hell are opened wide and the powers of darkness are summoned. Mephistopheles who, in the shape of a poodle, has followed Faust into his suffocating chamber, reveals his true self to the suicidal researcher and presents him with an offer he cannot refuse – he will turn the aged, dandruffed, whining Faust into an strapping young fellow and together they will explore the world, attract desirable women, gather experience and riches. They will wallow in happiness and beauty. Their agreement stipulates that Mephistopheles will be forced to fulfill any wish expressed by Faust. This while Faust only needs to accept one, single condition – if he someday becomes entirely satisfied with what Mephistopheles has provided for him and asks for a single moment to be extended – Verveile doch, du bist so schön, ”Stay a while, you are so beautiful”, then he will be condemned and forever belong to the Devil.
After a long life during which Faust, like each and every one of us, has made quite a number of mistakes, wounded and injured his fellow human beings, he finally finds himself in a situation where, as an administrator over a region, he has been given the opportunity to improve the lives of his subjects, especially by pushing back the sea with dikes, make ditches and turn the earth into cultivable fields. A struggle against nature for the benefit of man – culture against nature. However, like a ruthless dictator Faust intends to achieve progress with whip and carrot:
Get me workmen,
Thousands by any means, with cash
And whores and drink and with the lash
Encourage,tempt, pressgang them in.
I want news every day how far
Along with digging at that trench you are.
However, he perceives the wellbeing of others as his ultimate goal, stating that he will not rest until he has achieved it:
Stand on a free ground with a people who are free
Then to the moment I´d be allowed to say
Bide here, you are so beautiful!
Aeons will pass but the marks made by my stay
On the earth will be indelible.
I enjoy the highest moment now in this
My forefeeling of such happiness.
Finally, Faust has uttered the fatal words Verveile doch, Du bist so schön, ”Stay a while, you are so beautiful.” Mephistopheles triumphs and is about to drag Faust with him down to his kingdom of eternal suffering. However, Mephistopheles has actually lost the bet he made with God. The Devil is only familiar with sensual pleasures and desires; his powers and kingdom are based solely on selfishness and false self-realization. The Devil is utterly unable to understand that most of us might find joy in the well-being of others, just as Faust seems to assume by end of the play.
Faust is dying and it is apparently now at the moment of his death that he realizes the truth in what William Shakespeare's contemporary, the priest John Donne, wrote in one of his many funeral poems:
No man is an island entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; if a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as any manner of thy friends or of thine own were; any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind. And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.
In Goethe´s Faust, Mephistopheles is revealed as a servant of God. His gambling with God was nothing more than God testing Faust's reliability. God seems to believe that Ein guter Mensch in seinem dunklen Drange ist sich des rechten Weges wohl bewußt, ”A good man does, despite his dark urges, know the right path.” In Faust, Goethe wanted to demonstrate that humanity's foremost driving force is its search for love. To a certain extent, Goethe does in his tale about Faust provide us with an answer to why we should care about other people's well-being. We are naturally social beings. We live in communities and such a life becomes more pleasant, more stimulating and safer if we behave in a caring and friendly manner, instead of being easily irritated and hostile.
However, to turn the messy, whimsical, weird, ironic, hard-to-interpret and occasionally skilfully written Faust into an uplifting tale about humanity's highest ideals would be to push beyond the goal. Faust is hardly a morally unassailable individual. He is far from being a saint. Faust is an egoist whipped through life by his urges and not the least by his lust. Since Faust is a male creature, he seeks love in women. Das Ewig-Weibliche zieht uns hinan, ”The eternal woman hithers us on.”
This conviction may be likened to Dante's love for Beatrice, which guided him through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. It was divine love Dante sought through his Beatrice. She was an ideal, not a ”real” person, a Dream Woman. Dante was never allowed to live with her and when he wrote his powerful epic Beatrice was since long dead. It was absolute love Dante was chasing after in his dream, his Divine Comedy. During his search for knowledge, the Comedy's Dante is inexorably curious, constantly inquiring and in the end he finds l´amore che move il sole e l´altre stelle, ”the Love that moves the sun and the other stars.”
However, what Faust seeks in his love for women is far from being just heavenly bliss. Throughout Goethe's entire work and life, erotic lust is combined with scientific curiosity and this is also the case of his Faust. Love and sexual desire permeate the entire Faust; passionate desire – comic, tender, obscene, ecstatic, mysterious, grotesque. Even the disciplined and deeply religious Dante was possessed by love in its various shapes, though in his epic it was a search for chivalrous and religiously motivated love that urge him on – Divine Love. Nevertheless, just like Goethe, Dante also searched for absolute knowledge. The Comedy's Dante is inexorably curious, inquiring and seeking.
Goethe was just as arrogant as Dante, well aware of his vast expertise in a wide variety of areas. He considered himself more of a great scientist than a writer. Goethe's art was according to himself just part of a scientific search for the origin and meaning of life. How could all this knowledge be managed and used for the benefit of himself and others? In a letter, Goethe explained: In mir reinigt sich’s unendlich, und doch gestehe ich gerne, Gott und Satan, Höll und Himmel ist in mir Einem, ”Inside me a constant process of purification is going on and after all, I willingly admit that within myself God and Satan, Hell and Heaven are mixed together.” Faust is an argument about which part of the human nature that should be allowed to take the upper hand – the pursuit of evil, or pursuit of good.
Mephistopheles declares Ich verachte nur Vernunft und Wissenschaft, des Menschen allerhöchste Kraft, ”I only despise reason and knowledge, man's foremost strength.” The Devil´s driving force is his effort to corrupt science, knowledge, and love. Make them all serve a selfish end. Most scientists and teachers supported both National Socialism and Fascism. When we are deprived of compassionate intelligence, respect of and care for nature and people, we become bereaved of a shield and weapon that could be used for love and respect. Neglecting such moral strength makes as slaves under the same destructive force that Mephistopheles adheres to – The Master of all Lies and Sin. Man's search for love and goodness is by this demon reduced to an urge for wanton survival. Er nennt’s Vernunft und braucht’s allein, nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein, ”he [the humans] calls it Reason, but it only makes him more animal than an animal”.
Was it a pursuit of knowledge and love that brought me to Lund University? Maybe, anyway when I got there it felt like freedom.
Here we are now, entertain us.
I feel stupid and contagious,
here we are now, entertain us.
The feeling was probably not entirely different from Faust´s excitement after Mephistopheles had transformed him from being a tired, old man into a handsome youngster. After leaving the warm embrace of my family and the boring, limiting childhood town behind me, I was free to take care of myself in Lund. Like Faust, I threw myself into studies of those subjects things I liked – literature, art and religion, and not the least Drama, Theater, and Film, that at the time was an academic discipline. I experienced some bewildering romances and participated in life and fun, not the east nightly binges with like-minded friends, and an occasional excursion to cities more open and exciting than Lund, such as Copenhagen and Berlin.
Of course, there was some annoyance present as well. Lund had its fair share of boring know-alls who impressed their surroundings with prestigious knowledge. It was in the early seventies and chic to be radical; Mao, Lenin, Che Guevara, and Marx were hailed as heroes. ”Radical intellectuals” urged for world revolution, international solidarity and the importance of organizing to fight The State and Capitalism, while death to the family and religion was peached as well. While spreading around quotes by Mao, Marx, and Hegel, self-proclaimed ”radicals” became extremely annoyed if someone questioned their mediocre axioms. They praised one-party states with oppressive bureaucracies and called their brainwashing ideologies ”constructively implemented socialism”. If I did not agree with such luminaries they condemned, despised or ignored me, labeling me as a "right-wing reactionary" while drowning me with gibberish and ironic comments. The general narrowmindedness got on my nerves and it didn't help that I tried to get my opinions better organized by reading Mao, Hegel, and Marx. I did not understand much of their writings. The first two I found to be hard reading and rather hopeless cases, although parts of what Marx had written I found to be both thoughtful and well-formulated, although I could hardly get a good grasp of his extensive writings either.
However, I counted upon the good companionship of witty friends from my hometown. Claes, Stefan, and Didrik were moderately politically interested. With them, I could discuss other essentials. When it came to politics and philosophy, my corridor mate (the usual living quarters of students were single rooms along a corridor with a common kitchen) Mats Olin became a solid rock and reference point. He did like me come from the rural district of Göinge, but unlike me, he had solid language skills; read unhampered English, German and French, and even Spanish. Mats was knowledgeable about politics, philosophy and social anthropology, and he also read a great deal of fiction far beyond what was considered to be mandatory reading for left-wing sectarians.
It was through Mats I discovered alternatives to the obviously omnipotent, uniform, and often violent totalitarianism that swirled around me. He made me aware of The Frankfurt School, of Marcuse, Illich, Castoriades, Baudrillard, Feyerabend and a host of other new thinkers and critics of biased, totalitarian ways of thinking. Through Mats a whole new world opened up to me, fueled by my increased interest in mysticism and ”alien” cultures. Mats became the reason to why I became interested in the Situationists and during one of our trips to Copenhagen I bought a couple of Danish translations of essential Situationist literature, among them Guy Debord's Society of the Spectacle and an anthology compiled by Victor Martin, one of the leading Danish Situationist artists – There is a Life after Birth.
In Lund, I met a Situationist with whom I became briefly acquainted. Sometimes I encountered the Jean Sellem at the pub Spisen, The Fireplace, where he often nested at a corner table together with the notorious, eternal student Maxwell Overton. Jean Sellem always drank tea, while Maxwell drank cheap Turkish wine, Beyaz, it was bad enough as it was and became even worse due to Maxwell´s habit of putting sugar lumps in his wine glass.
Sellem was happy to talk and always in a contagiously good mood. Probably a dozen years older than I was I found him to be an unusually stimulating acquaintance – witty and with astonishing insights, as well as a lighthearted, unpredictable humour emphasized by a, to my ears at least, peculiar and very strong French accent, his bottle-thick glasses, unvarnished, as well as his unkempt. wildly frizzled hair. A true bohemian artist and a healthy element among all the boring ”leftist intellectuals”, many of whom did not at all appreciate the anarchistic Sellem whose Gallery Saint Peter for Experimental and Marginal Art was opposite Lund´s Book Café, an ”independent and unsectarian left-wing bookstore specializing in society-oriented, radical and Marxist literature”.
Jean Sellem, who made his appearance in Lund sometime in the late sixties, had been affiliated with The Situationist International (SI), though this ”fellowship” had been disbanded in 1972. Already before that, several of its members had been excluded after being skeptically inclined towards the increasingly dogmatic, left-revolutionary direction in which the association was moving. When I met him, Jean Sellem seemed to be more attracted by the Fluxus movement, which also was some kind of artistic fellowship, but far more extensive, and cross-culturally inclined than the Situationist International. Fluxus had no formal membership, though many of the most respected artists at the time were considered to be Fluxus affiliated; for example, John Cage, Joseph Buys, Nam June Paik, Terry Reily, Öyvind Fahlström, Yoko Ono, Carolee Schneeman and Wolf Vostel. Like Sellem, they devoted themselves to conceptual art, but he had distanced himself from the celebrity image that flourished within Fluxus circles and was more attracted by a group that identified itself as SI 2, or Situationist Bauhaus, headed by Asger Jorn's brother Jørgen Nash. This so-called the Second Situationist International was more focused on art than The First Situationist International and found its center in the artistic collective Drakabygget just outside Örkelljunga in northern Skåne, my home district.
Sellem considered it to be fascinating that my father knew Jørgen Nash, something he confirmed when they met and Nash stated that he counted upon Axel Lundius, from in the local newspaper Norra Skåne, Northern Skåne, as ”one of us”. Sometime after I got to know Jean Sellem, he was involved in a complicated battle with Lund Municipality, which had decided to withdraw its cultural contribution to his gallery. After he had invited me to read a few of my short stories, Gottegrisen, The Sweet Tooth, and Det blödande barnet, The Bleeding Child, in his gallery, Sellem obviously counted me as a supporter and furthermore published two of my drawings in one of his magazines. Sellem was a quite assiduous publicist and everything that happened in his gallery was carefully documented and archived in his Archive for Experimental and Marginal Art.
One day when I entered his gallery, Jean Sellem came running towards me and shouted in his inimitable French-Swedish:
- Ah, Lundius! Come in, come in! Close the door quickly so the rabbit does not run away!
I did as he said and somewhat confused looked around the place. There was no rabbit in sight. The floor of the gallery's exhibition hall was covered with newspaper strips and in the middle of them was a large salad head that Sellem every morning bought at the Saluhallen, the town market. There was, however, no rabbit. The installation was part of an exhibition containing an ”imaginary” rabbit.
Sellem was, as always when I met him, in a brilliant mood and our conversation was occasionally interrupted by his chuckling laugh. He told me of an initiative, an art action, he was staging together with a new-found friend of his, the graphic artist Andrzej Ploski, who recently had arrived from Kielce in Poland. Ploski had some problems with the Artists' National Association (KRO) and Sellem had difficulties with the municipality. On one of the gallery's display windows he had in large letters written: ”Censored by S [the Social Democrats] and M [the Moderates, a right-wing political party] in Lund.” Since Sellem was no longer receiving cultural support from the municipality, he now planned to print his own banknotes and sell them for ten Swedish crowns apiece, in support of his gallery.
The banknotes were to be designed by Ploski and issued by something they called The Lundada Bank and referred to as ren money, i.e. clean money. Ren is a word that can be interpreted as both ”clean” and ”reindeer” and the banknotes thus referred to the municipality's Social Democratic chairman, Birger Rehn. The bank's motto would be printed on the banknotes: Enighet ger stryk. Alla för alla, alla för ren, a play on words that is almost impossible to translate. A direct translation would by ”Unity results in a beating. One for all, all for Rehn”. In those days Swedish banknotes carried the caption Hinc robur et securitas, Latin for ”hence strength and security”. However, the Swedish word for ”strength” could also mean ”a beating”. ”One for all, all for one” was, of course, the motto for The Three Musketeers, which in Swedish becomes en för alla, alla för en, though Sellem changed ”one”, en, for ren, ”reindeer”, the name of the municipality´s chairman., Birger Rehn.
Sellem also worked on a book with sixteen full-page engravings by Andrzej Ploski. They were thinking of calling their book Lundius, Commedia dell´arte and Sellem now wondered if it was OK for me and my relatives if they used our family name. I explained that it certainly did not matter at all to my relatives, they would rather like it. When the book was published, Sellem gave me several copies of it, as well as a number of posters that my father sent to his brothers and my cousins. He framed his own copy and hung it in the entrance to my childhood home.
Through the books Mats Olin made me buy and my acquaintance with Jean Sellem, I became increasingly interested in the Situationists. Before he ended up in Lund, Sellem had drifted around in Europe, mostly making his living as a sidewalk artist. He had spent quite a long time in Germany where he had a daughter, Marie-Lou Sellem, who now is a fairly well-known actress, especially as she made a career in television where she has starred in several films and series. After his time in Germany, Sellem studied at an art school in Copenhagen. Sellem told me that some time afterward he had in Finland found that he could live on selling his own art, something that worried him and made him relinquish his own income-generating artistic creativity and in a truly Situationist spirit instead began dedicating his time to inspire and support other artists to create ”situations” which could awaken people to discern the ”real state of life”.
Jean Sellem came to Sweden and Lund, became fond of the small university town where he met and fell in love with Marie Sjöberg, who became his assistant, photographer, and all-arounder. Together they did between 1970 and 1982 administer Gallery Saint Peter. When I wondered what he was living on, Sellem explained that until now the Lund Municipality had willingly supported him and provided a yearly grant to his gallery, furthermore, he could count upon the support of his co-worker, Marie, who worked as a night nurse at Lund's hospital. When I asked him if his way of life was in accordance with the Situationist ideal, Sellem explained that this was how he interpreted it.
Until 1972. Guy Debord (1931-1994) had been the Situationists´ secretary, strategist, philosopher and disciplinarian, who regularly accepted or excluded members from an association he refused to call ”organization”. The movement, or whatever it could be called, was founded in 1957 under the name Situationist International (SI). Its ”ideology” was in 1960 established in a Manifesto, which introduction stated:
The existing framework cannot subdue the new human force that is increasing day by day alongside the irrisistible development of technology and the dissatisfaction of its possible uses in our senseless social life.
The Situationists had experienced the emergence of oppressive totalitarian states, World War II's devastating catastrophe culminating in the industrially efficient slaughter within extermination camps and the atomic bombs' effective eradication of human life. The War´s aftermath meant in several European countries abject misery, which however was soon followed by a rapidly improving economy, while nations experienced repression under direct Soviet rule or communist minion regimes. It was a time marked by doubts, worries, and protests, accompanied by alternative art in the form of free jazz, abstract expressionist painting and the dissolution of traditional storytelling techniques. The Situationist Manifesto stated that human slavery characterized by mind-numbing wage work only benefitted a few capitalists, supported by a commodity fetishism that has replaced ”real” life with an ever-increasing, frantic consumption of commodities, which quantity overshadowed and destroyed their quality. The Situationists wanted every person to become an artist in charge of her/his own life, rather than remaining as an alienated cog in a machinery that produced commodities that no one actually needed.
We must liberate our inherent creative power, let loose our playfulness. Turn life into a feast. Let our own imagination, render self-proclaimed ”experts” redundant, expose their true nature as simple lackeys in the service of ruthless capitalists. Instead of being entangled in the net of commercially conditioned manipulations, each and every one of us should be offered an opportunity to become an ”amateur expert”, members of a richer, more playful, more open society, instead of being demeaned and humiliated as a hapless consumers/producers.
There is a life after birth! Be realistic, demand the impossible! They buy your happiness, steal it back! Depression is counter-revolutionary! The boss needs you, you don't need him! Stalinism is a rotten corpse! Prohibit prohibition! The beach is under the asphalt!
A new openness could be manifested through the creation of ”situations”. A first step would be to free art from its misappropriation and exploitation by market forces, which by pricing it has transformed artistic expression into a commodity. An urgent action/situation would according to the Situationist Manifesto be to carry out a spectacular coup against an institution which for The Situationists was the epitome of oppressive State bureaucracy´s ongoing attempts to equalize and neutralise art, science, and education by transforming them into subservient slaves of a centralized, controlling society where everything has been provided with a monetary value. Where everything is up for sale.
A first step would be to occupy UNESCO, The United Nations Organization for Science, Education, and Culture, which has its headquarters in Paris. A huge, sumptuous building containing a select group of highly-paid “experts”, who decide what kind of “culture” may be deemed worthy of global support. A situation recommended by the Situationist Manifesto would be to use the UNESCO headquarters for the announcement of a proclamation that invited the people of the world to participate in the creation of a human existence, characterized by trust, love, and imagination.
Such a negative view of UNESCO and the commercial valuation of art seemed to be contradicted by a large painting by Asger Jorn, which I used to pass in one of UNESCO's large foyers when I ten years ago functioned as an insignificant cog within the Organization's vast machinery. The painting was purchased in 1958, the same year when UNESCO's stately headquarters were opened in Pars. The Danish artist Asger Jorn was a good friend of Guy Debord and one of the initiators of the Situationist International.
Asger Jorn was already making money on his art and through the years he became an important driving force behind and a significant financier of various Situationist activities. Asger Jorn (1914-1873), whose original name was Asger Oluf Jørgensen, was an amazingly energetic and multifaceted Jack of all Trades. Twenty-two years old, he had scraped together enough money to buy a motorcycle and use it for traveling to Paris to study art under the famous Vasily Kandinsky. However, Kandinsky turned out to be severely depressed, tired, old and poor. Instead, Jorn began studying for Fernand Léger and eventually became acquainted with the renowned, constructivist architect Le Courbusier. Together with Courbusier Asger Jorn worked on the decoration of the Temps Noveaux Pavilion, which was part of the 1937 legendary World Exhibition.
After admiring Le Courbusier, Jorn soon came to regard his ”misanthropic homes” as dreary and sterile places. Above all, he found the Functionalism that Le Courbusier advocated to be a force that hindered and circumscribed the all-encompassing experience and appreciation of life and imagination that true art should contribute to. A release of each individual's creativity. All people should be provided with opportunities to contribute to the growth and change of their local environment. Cities ought to become living organisms, not solidified in pre-established forms and systems, but dynamic and changeable in symbiosis with the people living and working within them. Jorn came to regard Le Courbusier's Plan Voisin from 1925, a proposal to rebuild large parts of the centre of Paris, as an absolute abomination, a perfect antithesis to his own urban thinking.
After returning to Denmark, Jorn immersed himself in studies of magic and ancient Nordic art. During the war, he joined the Danish resistance movement and contributed with several articles to Helhesten, a magazine paying hommage to folk art, Nordic paganism and uncontrolled spontaneity. Helhesten, The Horse of Hell, was a Danish supernatural creature, three-legged and pitch black it appeared on moonless nights in the vicinity of graveyards. Those who were unfortunate enough to encounter this lugubrious horse were sure to die shortly after the confrontation. By naming their magazine after a threatening apparition the artists who contributed to it wanted to suggest that their art was a deadly threat to the occupying Nazis. During the War, Jorn also translated Kafka into Danish and began to collect a large number of photographs that eventually became an archive he named 10,000 years of Nordic Folk Art.
After the War, Asger Jorn resumed his restless travels and made contact with artists around the world. His abstract paintings sold well and progressively he became quite well known. At Café Notre Dame in Paris, he did in 1948, together with the author Christan Dotremont and the artist Constant, a pseudonym for Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys, establish the artist group CoBrA. The name was constructed by the first letters of the artists´ hometowns; Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam. Shortly afterward, the Dutch artists Karel Appel and Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo (Corneille) joined the group. They already shared an apartment with Constant. In their Manifesto, CoBrA declared that their spontaneous art was intended as a denial of the decadence of European art, which had begun during the Renaissance. They wanted to counteract all specialization and ”civilized art forms” and instead support a ”direct” primitive and childish art, based on a free and joyful collaboration between material, imagination, and technology. Their art would be equivalent to ”inhibition-free well-being”. CoBrA had a major impact, but the group only remained united for a few years. One of the reasons for its dissolution was that Asger Jorn began an intimate relationship with Constant's wife.
After CoBrA was disbanded in 1951, Asger Jorn returned to Denmark, depressed and severely ill with tuberculosis. However, in 1953 he managed to regain his health and stamina. Jorn had become interested in pottery and moved to the coastal city of Albissola Marina in Liguria, the seat of the legendary pottery company Giuseppe Mazzotti Manifattura Ceramiche founded in 1903 and became, after being recognized by Futurist leader Tommaso Marinetti, a production centre for futuristic fine arts and craftsmanship. Soon a number of artists gathered around Asger Jorn, among them Constant, who had forgiven his former friend´s elopement with his wife. Jorn was by now married to Constant's ex-wife, Matie van Domselaer, with whom he had two children.
Constant began working on an urbanization project he called The New Babylon and elaborated large architectural models through which he tried to create the dynamic urban landscapes he often discussed with Asger Jorn.
As usual, Asger Jorn within a short timespan established stimulating contacts with local artists. One of them was the chemist and multi-worker Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio, who in Alba, a mile north of Albissola Marina, owned an industrial plant producing herbal sweets and remedies.
Pinot-Gallizio was a left-wing politician and put Constant in touch with the leaders of a Romani camp, where they together with the residents began to experiment with realizing their ideas of alternative urbanism, within which individual´s creative powers would contribute to the creation of a dynamic society. Constant was musically talented. He was a skilled violinist and guitarist and had early on become fascinated by gypsy music, which led him to learn various improvisation techniques from the Romani and to play the cimbalom (tsymbaly).
In his Alba factory, Pinot-Gallizo developed, in collaboration with his son and Asger Jorn, something he called Pittura industriale, Industrial Art Production. With the help of various machines and innovative techniques he did together with a local workforce create up to 70 metres long canvases, filled with spontaneously created art. These ”pieces of art” were then sold by the metre as fabric goods.
Later on, Pinot-Gallizio created within art galleries in Turin, Paris, and Amsterdam a kind of ”environments” – a ”raw” ambient art he called Cavernas dell´antimateria, Caves of Antimatter. Gallery visitors were invited to move within a maze of painted canvases where they were surprised by unexpected ”situations”.
Soon artists from the global art world became attracted by Albissola Marina, among them Asger Jorn's friends from Paris – Guy Debord and his wife Michèle Bernstein. They were among the leaders of a group called Lettrists, a movement that intended to trace the origins of human thinking and action. By breaking down the language into its smallest units; moaning, sighing, screaming and changing the alphabet into ”primordial” signs and symbols, they wanted to create building blocks for the build-up of new, more spontaneous, personal and free modes of expression.
Lettrism was created by like-minded young people in post-war Paris, within bars, cheap restaurants, and shabby hotels. In August 1945, twenty-year-old Isidore Goldstein arrived in Paris, after spending six weeks traveling through post-war Europe from his Romanian hometown Botşani. With him, Isidore Goldstein brought a wealth of poems and writings inspired by his idol and compatriot Tristan Tzara (Samuel Rosenstock), who in 1916 in Zurich, together with the German Hugo Ball, had founded the famed Dada movement.
Isidore intended to shock and offend everyone. Already a few months after his arrival in Paris he was thrown out of Theatre du Vieux-Colombier, where a play by Tzara was performed. Isidore had several times interrupted the performance by roaring: ”Dada is dead! Lettrism has taken its place”. Scandals quickly erupted around him. In 1949, Isidore had managed to get a novel published, Isou ou la mécanique des femmes, Isou, or the Mechanics of Women. This autobiographical novel was a tribute to sixteen-year-old and later concept artist Rhea Sue Sanders. The scandal was caused by the fact that Isidore Goldstein claimed that simultaneously with his mistress he had for four years made love to no less than 175 women and if time and space permitted it he could describe each act in great detail. Isisdore Goldstein was fined 2,000 francs, sentenced to eight months imprisonment and the court decided that all existing copies of the book should be immediately destroyed. However, after a month the prison sentence was suspended.
After two years in Paris, Isidore Isou, as Goldstein now called himself, had established himself as a significant culture personality and the prestigious publishing house Gallimard published two of his books: Introduction à une nouvelle poésie et à une nouvelle musique, Introduction to a New Poetry and a New Music and L'Agrégation d'un nom et d'un messie, The Merging of a Name and a Messiah.
After six years in Paris, Isou began to express himself through film. Traté de bave et d´éternité, Treaty of Mucus and Eternity, which was divided into three parts. The first, called The Principle, depicted how people moved along Parisian streets, accompanied by excerpts from a lecture on film. The second part, The Development, described a romantic meeting between a man and a woman and consisted entirely of clips from other films. The third ”chapter” was called The Evidence and was entirely composed of abstract imagery, including so-called leaders, i.e. sequences of numbers that were used starting strips for films. Not many first-time visitors succeeded in enduring the entire screening and left the theatre under loud protests. When the film was later presented during the Cannes Film Festival, the influential Jean Cocteu watched and appreciated Traté de bave et d´éternité, making sure it won first prize in a newly established film category – The Best Avant-garde Performance.
Isou's incomprehensible film was based on two Lettrist concepts, which later were further developed by the Situationists – détournement and dérive. The first concept could possibly be translated as ”return/bringing back” and meant that artists made use of images and expressions manufactured by the so-called Mass Society, which had been created by capitalism and the bourgeoisie. Artists destroyed, cut up, and manipulated all kinds of imagery in such a way that it came to transmit an ”alternative world view”. Asger Jorn explained the détournement process as a unique form of innovation: ”Only those who are capable of disparaging generally accepted opinions will be able to create new values.” Situationist artists used advertisements, comic books, porn magazines, B-movies, kitsch and trashy art. They cut them up, united the pieces, added new sentences and hints and then published the results in magazines, as posters, or movies.
Asger Jorn created new, critical artwork Peinture's modifiées, Modified paintings, meaning that he manipulated, changed and painted over cheap artwork he had bought in flea markets.
A possible translation of dérive might be ”drifting”. This meant that you wandered aimlessly within an urban landscape, without a set goal and any intense involvement. Maybe akin to the introduction to Christopher Isherwood´s Goodbye to Berlin: ”I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking.” A ”therapeutic” approach aimed at clearing your brain from its constant struggle to organize and subordinate impressions within logical frameworks.
During her time as an art and design student, my oldest daughter became inspired by dérive, especially as it was expressed by English Psychogeographers. She used city maps to draw in random red lines, which during town itineraries had to be followed as closely as possible, regardless of the obstacles you might encounter. She also designed an Urbilabe, a kind of ”modified compass” manipulated through the introduction of various components, giving different directions. Her Urbilabe was intended to inspire ”its users to explore an urban landscape in a spontaneous and inspiring manner.”
A year after the premiere of Isou's first movie, his six-year-younger adept Guy Debord presented an even more incomprehensible film – Hurlements a faveur de Sade, Screams in Favour of de Sade. A movie entirely devoid of pictures. The flickering movie screen remained white during readings from a book Isou had written about film, as well as detached dialogues from John Ford's Rio Grande, recitations from James Joyce´s Finnegans Wake, as well as the Code civil des Français. During longer breaks between the readings, the screen remained completely black. It was also blackened during the last twenty minutes of this quite patience-demanding presentation.
While making the film, Debord was responsible for the Lettrist magazine Potlatch. The word means ”give away” and denoted major events during which indigenous people along the west coast of North America accompanied by dance and partying gave away large portions of their property.
The magazine Potlatch was issued on a monthly basis and distributed free of charge. Each number was initiated by the words:
All texts presented in Potlach can be freely reproduced, imitated and/or partially quoted without any reference whatsoever to the original source.
Soon there came a break between Isou and Debord. They were both complicated personalities and began to attack each other in various writings. Especially Isou had become utterly annoyed by Debord and his Situationist International, which he described as a neo-Nazi organization.
In the summer of 1957, Guy Debord, his wife Michèle Bernstein, as well as the English psychogeographer Ralph Romney visited Asger Jorn and his Italian counterparts within an artist community Jorn had established in Albissola Marina as part of something they called MIBI, or The International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus. Asger Jorn's good friend, the young philosophy student Piero Simondo, had an aunt who owned a small hotel in the village of Cosio d´Aroscia and it was there that the Situationist International (SI) was established amidst extensive wine-drinking and violent discussions.
During the twelve and a half years the organization existed, it had at most seventy-four members (63 men and 11 women). Despite its limited membership SI came to have a major impact and inspired a wide variety of artists, writers, and philosophers. Guy Debord, who delved deeper into philosophy and politics, believed that SI's ultimate goal could not be to create experimental and engaging artworks/situations without producing a truly revolutionary consciousness. Capitalist society, and to the same or even higher degree, state capitalist systems like those of the Soviet Union and China, had vanquished all attempts to challenge the hegemony of commercialism and bureaucracy. The bourgeois class had appropriated avant-garde culture, put a price tag on all art and thus turned it into a commodity. Debord's conclusion was to exclude all artists from the group, something that did not prevent him from continuing to receive financial support from a successful artist like Asger Jorn.
Even if the Situationists were critical of prevailing political and social systems and advocated an ”entirely new” view of life and culture, they were nevertheless children of their time. In the United States, we find The Beat Generation and Great Britain had its Angry Young Men, just to mention two of all those ”alternative movements” that had sprung up all over the world. Several of these movements criticized the current, dominant society, though, at least initially, most of them had been generally ”aesthetically” inclined. However, most of the members of the governing segment of society were deeplý worried by the wars in Algeria and Vietnam, as well as other ”resistance movements” in the Third World. Some intellectuals approved of what they considered to be the creation of ”social alternatives” in ”socialist” societies, like those established in Cuba or China. They immersed themselves in Marx and Hegel while integrating their reading and thinking in writings and actions.
Debord stated that the current Capitalism, as well as Communist totalitarian systems, were manifestations of what he called The Society of the Spectacle, a state in which commodity fetishism's ”spectacle” had reifacted all human relations.
The concept of Warenfetischismus, Commodity Fetishism, was coined by Karl Marx in an effort to describe how Europeans view consumer goods as ”things which, by their characteristics, satisfy all forms of human needs.” Goods have become sources of human satisfaction and people no longer understand that they really are – results of how human labour has transformed natural resources into consumer goods. Our unwavering desire for goods and services has turned them into something desirable, something almost divine, endowed with an existence of their own, beyond our everyday lives:
A commodity appears at first sight as an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties. So far as its is a value in use, there is nothing mysterious about it, whether we consider it from the point of view that by its properties it satisfies human needs, or that it first takes on these properties as the product of human labour. It is absolutely clear that, by his activity, man changes the forms of the materials of nature in sucha way as to make them useful to him. The form of wood, for instance, is altered if a table is made out of it. Nevertheless the table continues to be wood, an ordinary sensuous thing. But as soon as it emerges as a commodity, it changes into a thing which transcends sensuousness. It not only stands with it feet on the ground, but in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and evolves out of its wooden brain grotesque ideas, far more wonderful than if it were to begin dancing of its own free will.
The word reification also originates from Marx. It was created from the German Verdinglichung, ”making into a thing”, a description of how we humans have come to regard other creatures as if they were things. Thereby have social relations also been transformed into “things”, more akin to products/commodities than shared, unifying ideas. We imagine that happiness, knowledge, prestige, and togetherness can be bought for money, just as if they were goods.
According to Guy Debord, capitalism had transformed our society in such a manner that our thinking and our emotions have become experiences that can be bought and sold. What Debord labels as a Society of the Spectacle is an order of things in which our existence has been transformed into a business transaction. We have wiped out our individuality, our imagination, and playfulness only to become full-time consumers. Like a group of passive onlookers, we soak in everything offered by a manipulative and invariably present, capitalist system, which at the same time unabashedly oppresses and subverts us under an impersonal, state-controlled bureaucracy. Debord summarized The Society of the Spectacle in five points:
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Uninterrupted technical renewal.
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Total integration of the State and the economy.
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Secrecy of how this manipulation is carried out.
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Dispersion of lies that cannot be contested.
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The transformation of our existence into an eternal and unaffected “now”. History and philosophy have lost their significance.
The Society of the Spectacle must be combated and broken down from within, through the creation of mind-boggling, mind-altering situations. However, in order to succeed in doing so, the Situationist must place her/himself beside the current consumer society. Herein lies one of the great paradoxes of the movement.
Guy Debord considered that wage labor chained us to the murderous bureaucracy of capitalism. Early on in his youth, he scribbled on a wall: Ne Travaillez Jamais, never work. Nevertheless, his wives worked. Debord married twice and had several mistresses. For example, Michèle Bernstein sustained them both for a time by writing horoscopes for racehorses. When a friend visited Debord and his second wife, the poet, linguist, and historian Alice Becker-Ho, in the hotel apartment where they lived, the guest noticed that Alice did all the housework. Debord declared: ”She washes up the dishes while I make a revolution.”
Debord “worked” by thinking and writing and was then economically supported by others, including Asger Jorn. Since 1971, when he met Debord, until his death in 1990, the publisher and film producer Gérard Lebovici constituted Debord's most important emotional and financial support. Although he interacted with wealthy celebrities Lebovici had an anarchic inclination that directed him to critical thinkers like Debord. Unfortunately, Lebovici was also attracted by people from criminal circles. On March 7, 1984, he was found dead in his car in a garage on Avenue Foch not far from the Arc de Triomphe. Someone had four days earlier, at short range, shot him with four bullets in the back of his head. The murder remained unsolved. Guy Debord, who naturally became very agitated by the murder, retreated to a village in the Loire Valley, where he ten years later committed suicide through a gunshot in his mouth. He had then for several years been seriously ill in the suites after lifelong alcoholism.
As early as 1960, Guy Debord, who despite the Situationist gospel of unrestricted freedom, often acted as the movement´s dictator, had dispelled Pinot-Gallizio and several German artists. During The fifth Situationist Conference, which was celebrated in the Swedish town of Gothenburg in 1962, there came to an open conflict between the majority of the practicing artists and a group of ”theorists” who supported Debord. As a result, most of the SI artists, including an artist group called SPUR with its centre in Munich, joined Asger Jorn's brother Jørgen Nash, who recently had established an artist community called Drakabygget. There they retained their beliefs in art as a life-changing activity, but they were more of apolitical anarchists than theoretically inclined activists. After the Gothenburg Conference, only twenty-five of SI's seventy-four members remained in the Situationist International.
Asger Jorn did, despite his increased international recognition and income, continue to be an anarchist in constant conflict with the art establishment. For example, he found the practice of rewarding works of art with prestigious prizes to be utterly absurd and when The Guggenheim Museum in New York decided to award him with the 1964 International Award for his painting Dead Drunk Danes, he declined the reward and sent a telegram to the chairman of the jury in which he declared that he did not want to participate in its ”ridiculous game”.
Jorn had high ambitions and was a diligent writer trying to ”reconstruct philosophy from an artist's perspective”. Accordingly, he refuted on Kirkegaard's theories about a contradiction between an aesthetic and an ethical worldview. He even ventured into an attack on Niels Bohr's epoch-making work on quantum mechanics and further on developed the so-called triolectics, a concept that I do not understand much of, though it has been explained as a ”many-valued”, logical system that, in addition to the value concepts of ”true” and ”false” counts upon a third, indefinite value. It does apparently build upon the mathematician Jules Henri Poincaré´s (1854-1912) assumption that intuition provides the foundation for all of the mathematics
Asger Jorn was an esteemed guest at his brother's Drakabygge. One member of the art commune described Jørgen Nash's anticipation of Asger Jorn's arrival:
Everything was in a whirl of excitement, when Nash’s famous brother came to “Drakabygget”. Nash treated it as if God Almighty was on the way. All the time it sounded “my brother, my brother”. Sometimes I thought, if he says “my brother” one more time, I´ll strangle him.
Jørgen Nash has by himself and others been described as a ”happy rebel”. Jean Sellem told me that he thought Nash to be a better artist than his brother Asger Jorn, who in his art tends to be gloomier and more serious than his light-hearted, ”life-affirmative” brother. They had a difficult childhood, being six siblings whose mother became a widow after her husband died in a car accident. Nash and Jorn started painting early and during the German occupation of Denmark, they both became involved in the Danish resistance movement. Nash escaped to Sweden where he began his career as an ”action poet”.
His most notorious action was to cut off the head of the famous Little Mermaid in Copenhagen´s harbour. Nash claimed that he had placed it in a hatbox and buried it in peat bog close to the Danish seaside resort Tisvilde. The head has never been recovered, despite the fact that Nash underwent lengthy interrogations by the murder squad of the Danish police. Nash was not convicted of his confessed crime since the Police considered him to be ”untrustworthy” and they could consequently not rely on any of his numerous and contradictory acknowledgments.
My father told me about various situations staged by Drakabygget´s artist collective. In his capacity as editorial secretary and later editor-in-chief of the local newspaper, he was often notified about what they were up to. For example, when the artist Finn Sørensen as an act of ”protest against the brutality in the world” let himself be buried alive in a ventilated coffin, provided with a telephone. The day after the solemn burial act, Sørensen and his coffin were dug up by the local police. Sørensen was taken to St. Mary's Mental Hospital in Helsingborg, where a doctor explained that the artist was in need of immediate and enforced mental care.
In 1975, Jens Jörgen Thorsen and Jörgen Nash appeared in the Danish Parliament wearing striped prison suits and outfitted with heavy iron chains, spreading leaflets protesting against the ”formal attacks” on the freedom of expression, which they considered had smitened Thorsen's planned movie about Jesus´s sex life.
When it comes to Thorsen, I find it difficult to support the views of Drakabygget. From time to time, both theirs and the ideology of the Situationist International could, unfortunately, appear as being both pornographic and misogynic. Thorson's 1970 movie Quiet Days in Clichy was based on Henry Miller´s in my opinion worst novel of the same name. Miller is a skilled stylist and I have with great interest read several of his novels and essays, though in that short novel his occasional sensationalism, misogyny, and egocentrism are at their absolute worst. Thorsen's film followed Miller's novel quite faithfully and is thus both annoying and bad, especially due to its pitiful and exploitative view of women.
Miller and Thorson stated they intended to reveal all the falsehood and emptiness that dominate life in capitalist societies and instead explore how something as natural as sex has been turned into a taboo and consumer goods. Despite this probably benevolent purpose, I fully agree with author Jeanette Winterson when she, in a review of Fredrick Turner's hagiography Renegade: Henry Miller and the Making of Tropic of Cancer, pours her enraged wit over both Turner and Miller:
Miller the renegade wanted his body slaves like any other capitalist—and as cheaply as possible. When he could not pay, Miller the man and Miller the fictional creation work out how to cheat women with romance. What they cannot buy they steal.
The Situationists have been accused of being an exclusive ”men's club” and there might actually be some truth to that. Their magazines were filled with scantily dressed or naked ladies who had been cut out from porn magazines and provided with thought-provoking, or challenging, speech bubbles, initiatives devoid of any worries about the fact that such ”provocations” could be perceived as abusive to women. In addition, for a large part of their lives, several Situationists, like Debord, Jorn, and Nash, were known to be notorious ”women chasers” and famous Situationists like Raoul Vaneigem, Jean-Pierre Bouyoux, and Alexander Trocchi, did under pseudonyms publish rude pornographic novels. Women like Michèle Bernstein, married to Guy Debord, and Jacqueline de Jong, married to Asger Jorn, were excellent writers and of great importance for the formulation of Situationist theses and texts. Nevertheless, Bernstein has later stated that women like her were subordinates to their husbands and supporting actors to male primadonnas.
Thorson's planned movie about Jesus' sex life was blatantly pornographic. The Danish Film Institute promised financial support and a couple of scenes were filmed in Spain and elsewhere. However, wild protests became extensive even before the filming could begin in earnest. In Great Britain, the Vatican and the United States, various religious groups raged against the endeavour, something that of course was expected by Thorsen who considered the hullabaloo to be excellent publicity. The screenplay for the film had already been published as a book and Jørgen Nash gave my father a copy. It turned out to be nothing more than badly written and degrading pornography. Thorsen was far from being a skilled author and the obvious purpose of the entire, tasteless business was to shock as many people as possible, another was probably to make a profit from the unabashed provocation. The Danish Film Institute withdrew its support and Thorsen enjoyed playing the role as victim of Western censorship.
At Drakabygget, Jørgen Nash's goal was to combine art with agriculture. Cows, sheep, pigs, chickens, and horses were purchased and he made ambitious plans for the future. Extensive drainage ditches were dug to receive Government grants, artworks were exchanged for food and gasoline, although far too much of the expenditure was dependent on Asger Jorn's financial support and he soon tired of keeping the poorly planned agricultural endeavour on its feet. Jørgen Nash was definitely not a farmer and the bohemian members of the artist commune were unwilling to engage in any agricultural activities. They sold art to keep the messy economy going. Over time, artists such as Hardy Strid, Nash's third wife Liz Zwick and Yoshio Nakajima managed to get well paid for their paintings, as did Jørgen, who occasionally signed his artwork with ”Jorn”, to increase the market value.
Drakabygget´s agricultural activities were discontinued, but after many years of balancing on the brink of bankruptcy, Nash's economy gradually improved. Finally, he could to an author who interviewed him in 1999, proudly declare that
I am the poor boy who became a millionaire. But up to the age of 60, I had perpetual problems with surviving.
He posed in front of a painting of the Danish fifteenth-century astronomer Tycho Brahe commissioned and paid for by an art collector at USD 20,000. On the portrait, Nash had attached a three-dimensional nose of genuine silver. He explained:
– Tycho was a goat! He had over 200 children! However, one of the cuckold husbands brought with him five henchmen to Tycho´s castle, Uranienborg, where they cut off the astronomer´s nose. To conceal his disability, at least to some extent, Tycho acquired a silver nose. [When Tycho Brahe's tomb in 2010 was opened in Prague it was found that the nose had actually been made of brass].
Two years before Jørgen Nash died, the Drakabyggets Konsthall Foundation was inaugurated in 2002, but the trust went bankrupt in 2014 and all its collected artwork was sold. Recently, during a visit to my childhood town, the nearby Hässleholm, I saw an advertisement in the display window of the Savings Bank:
Former Drakabygget´s Art Gallery in Örkelljunga is up for sale! It is a completely renovated and bright exhibition hall of about 215 sqm. At the adjacent building there are six garages at the ground floor and a modern apartment upstairs. The entire space can e.g. be converted into apartments.
In Nash's and Jorn's birthplace, the Danish town of Silkeborg, Asger Jorn's museum has, however, become a success. The paintings on display have been valued at around USD 40 million.
Jean Sellem's gallery was closed down. The Municipality ceased to support him and where the gallery was located there is now a hairdressing salon. In his defense, I might say that Jean Sellem's manner of thinking and ideas about art have been important to me and his cultural significance was for many others certainly at least as stimulating as other cultural initiatives supported by the Municipality of Lund.
I am absolutely convinced that within the cultural climate we now live in, no municipal government, and definitely not someone with a Swedish Democratic Party (a deplorably ever-increasing populist party) majority, would support a happy anarchist like Jean Sellem. He was not someone who tried to shock his fellow human beings by attacking their political or religious beliefs. Jean Sellem is a cheerful homo ludens, a playful man, who wants us to be that as well. We should look at life with a more open and light-hearted point of view than the one our everyday confrontations with an impersonal bureaucracy and all kinds of problems lock us up in.
I remember how Sellem once when I looked into his gallery was unusually excited. His good friend Andrzej Ploski had more or less unwittingly created a great turmoil in the centre of Lund. The town´s art gallery was displaying works by someone Sellem labeled as a ”Stalinist fascist”, the East German artist Willi Sitte, something that annoyed the eastern European refugee Ploski, who att the same time considered himself to be poorly treated by KRO, The National Artist Association.
Sellem thought Ploski's ”action” was quite amusing, though I was somewhat hesitant about appreciating Ploski´s prank. It happened in the midst of a time when many Europeans were in constant fear of threatening terrorist attacks, not as now by Islamists, but by political terror groups such as the IRA from Ireland, the ETA from the Basque Country, the RAF from Germany and Italy's Brigate Rosse. Ploski had intended to hand over a make-believe bomb to Konsthallen, The Municipal Art Gallery. A package on which he in large letters had written BOMB. When no one was to be found there and Konsthallen appeared to be closed for lunch he placed his package in front of the entrance doors and went to eat at a restaurant close by. When Ploski got the bill he asked the management of the reputed restaurant to send it to KRO. Of course, this was considered to be a nuisance, if not sheer rudeness. Nevertheless after Ploski had been forced to pay for his expensive lunch he received a certificate from Stäket, i.e. the restaurant, that he initially had asked it to send KRO the bill, With that statement in hand he went over to the office of Sydsvenska Dagbladet, the local newspaper, as a step further in his protest action.
On his way from Sydsvenska Dagbladet, they had not been particularly interested in Ploski's complaints, he found that the central square of Lund, Mårtenstorget, had been sealed off while bomb demolition experts, specially summoned from Copenhagen, had appeared equipped with a remote-controlled robot which now was busy removing his bomb package. It was then in a special vehicle taken from the scene. When the package had been opened during secure circumstances it was found to contain a rubber duck. Since Ploski had written his name and address on the package, he was arrested the same evening. I do not remember the consequences of his actions.
Although Sellem was amused by Ploski's Situationist action I do not think he himself would have been capable of doing anything slightly illegal. I cannot recall any police interventions in connection with Sellem's support to ”marginal and experimental art”. As I now remember Sellem, I recall my good friend Örjan, also he an industrious supporter of ”alternative” art, in his case it mainly about literature. While Sellem was working with his gallery, Örjan was a member of a punk band, Bostonvärk, which devoted itself to music, poetry, and happenings. Like Sellem, he was also a book publisher. The first book he published had no title and was an anthology compiled from anonymous contributions – drawings, poems, essays, and short stories. In it, I published my short story The Bleeding Child that I previously had read at Gallery St. Petri. Örjan also knew Jean Sellem and shared with him his optimism and belief in the transforming power of art.
In 2013, Örjan published a new edition of a book that Jean Sellem in 1981 had printed in eleven copies – Sweden Today. The new edition was produced by hand in 85 numbered copies, all of which were signed by Jan Sellem and sold to customers who had pre-ordered their copies. It is a hardcover book in large format with 1000 completely black pages: ”The result of Jean Sellem's long-standing research on the state of the nation.” Although many told Örjan it was a crazy endeavour to publish Sellem's book, the demand was great and the publisher is now constantly receiving inquiries on how to get hold of the unique book. Nevertheless, the 85 copies are sold out and the book will never be published again. Sweden Today remains listed on the editor´s homepage with the comment:
What is this? An ink bomb? A nihilistic descent into the Maelstream? An unique comment on contemporary Swedish everyday life? But ... all pages are completely black! Is the present situation really as bad as that? Probably, the author's analysis is undoubtedly quite clear and in his eloquence is difficult to dispute.
In spite of the difficult times that have befallen him Jean Sellem has kept his good mood. Marie and he have separated and their Archive for Experimental and Marginal Art has been scattered. Even worse is that such an aesthetically inclined man as Jean Sellem is now almost blind, he can only distinguish faces, images, and text from a short distance.
I find that my essay became much longer than I expected it to be. Something that might be expected while tackling such an intricate issue as the meaning of life. Jean Sellem's answer may partly be hidden within his Sweden Today and Örjan dealt with it in an interesting book he called Livets mening är en hägring, The Meaning of Life is a Mirage. These two books were the ultimate reason why I embarked on writing this blog entry. It is now time to end my long-winding journey along Faust´s and The Situationists' meandering paths. I finish with a question alluding to Nietschze's dictum:
It is only as an aesthetic phenomenon that existence and the world are eternally justified.
Burton Russell, Jeffrey (1986) Mephistopheles: The Devil in The Modern World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell. Chollet, Laurent (2004) Les situationnistes: L´utopie incarnée. Paris: Gallimard. Danchev, Alex (ed.) (2011) 100 Artists´ Manifestos: From the Futurists to the Stuckists. London: Penguin Classics. Debord, Guy (2002) Society of the Spectacle. Detroit: Black & Red. Ellmann, Richard (1988) Oscar Wilde. London: Penguin Books. Donne, John (2006) Selected Poems. London; Penguin Classics. Fazakerley, Gordon (1982) ”He was a Cannibal – About Asger Jorn”, https://www.fazakerley.dk/?page_id=160 Freud, Sigmund (2002) Civilization and its Discontents. London: Penguin Modern Classics. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (2005) Faust, Part I. Translated by David Constantine. London: Penguin Classics. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (2009) Faust, Part II. Translated by David Constantine. London: Penguin Classics. Hussey, Andrew (1972) The Life and Death of Guy Debord. London: Jonathan Cape. Isherwood, Christopher (1972) Goodbye to Berlin. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Modern Classics. Kierkegaard, Sören (1967) Stages on Life´s Way. New York: Schocken Books.Marx, Karl (1992) Capital: Volume One: A Critique of Political Economy. London: Penguin Classics. Nespolo, Ugo (2019) ”Situazionismo”, Art e Dossier, No. 394. Nietzsche, Friedrich (1994) The Birth of Tragedy: Out of the Spirit of Music. London: Penguin Classics. Safranski, Rüdiger (2017) Goethe: Life as a Work of Art. New York: Liveright. Sellem, Jean (2014) Sweden Today. Lund: Bakhåll. Wilde, Oscar (2010) The Picture of Dorian Gray. London: Penguin Classics. Winterson, Jeanette (2012) ”The Male Mystique of Henry Miller”, The New York Times, January16.
Sigmund Freud skrev 1929 en betraktelse om hur individens önskningar motarbetas av samhällets krav och förväntningar. Das Unbehagen in der Kultur, Vantrivsel i kulturen, inleds med ett uppenbarligen obestridligt påstående:
Det går inte att värja sig från intrycket att folk i allmänhet mäter det mesta med falska måttstockar. För egen del strävar de efter makt, framgång och rikedom och beundrar sådana som uppnått dem, men därigenom underskattar de också livets verkliga värden. Genom att acceptera allmänna omdömen löper man risken att glömma människolivets mångfacetterade rikedom och andlighet.
Därmed fastställde Freud att ett av mänsklighetens största gissel är vår strävan efter perfektion. Finner vi den inte hos oss själva söker vi den hos andra. Straffet för att inte uppnå förväntningar blir ofta överdrivet stort – för oss själva såväl som för ”de andra”. De som inte uppfyllt de krav vi ställt på dem. Det går dock att argumentera för att strävan efter perfektion är drivkraften som fört såväl den enskilda människan som hela mänskligheten framåt. Den har gjort oss till människor, till kulturvarelser. Genom vår strävan mot ”något bättre”, den perfekta tillvaron, förändrar vi förutsättningarna för vår existens. Vi har förvandlat natur, ”det ursprungliga” till ”odling”, kultur. Samtidigt tvingar vi andra människor att bli ”bättre” än vad de är. En process inom vilken vi löper risken att förlora oss själva. Glömma den roll vi spelar tillsammans med andra. Ingen av oss är perfekt. Mänsklig perfektion existerar inte. Tvång och likriktning är inte förutsättningar för förbättring, snarare tvärtom.
Vi bedömer andra människor utifrån perfektionens måttstockar. Role models som man säger på engelska. Perfekta människor som vi och speciellt andra bör efterlikna. Barn plågas då deras föräldrar jämför dem med andras barn. ”Se på Lisa hon är redan läkare. Vad är du? Se på Gustav han har blivit miljonär. Vad har du blivit? Vad har du gjort annat än slarvat bort dina förutsättningar, latat dig och därigenom misslyckats med det mesta?”
Jämförandet dyker upp tidigt i ett barns liv och kan hos en försvarslös barnstackare inpränta att hon/han är en misslyckad varelse, en loser. Någon som är annorlunda ”alla andra”. Barn kan inbilla sig att de inte är sina föräldrars barn. Att de varit ett spädbarn som lämnats framför dörren, en bortbyting, ett trollbarn, speciellt om föräldrar fått till vana att jämföra dem med ”mer lyckade” syskon.
Våra idoler är sinnebilden för perfektion. De har lyckats, blivit berömda och framgångsrika, kriterier för en idol. De är sådana som vi vill vara, eller ännu hellre – så som vi vill att vår livsledsagare, våra barn, våra anställda, våra överordnade, borde vara. Under min tid i USA förundrades jag över den stora mängd barn- och ungdomsböcker som skrevs och publicerades kring framgångsrika och beundransvärda ungdomar, i vars anda det uppväxande släktet skulle anpassas. Här i Italien publicerar den katolska kyrkan ständigt mängder av liknande skrifter om unga helgon fostrade av visa män och kvinnor. Som Dominic Savio som dog som fjortonårig elev till Sankt Giovanni Bosco (1815-1888) grundare av Salesianorden, vars syfte var att ta hand om övergivna eller fattiga barn och uppfostra dem till lant- eller industriarbetare. San Bosco skrev en berättelse om Dominic Savio i vilken han skildrar honom som ett ideal för studenter och unga kristna. Över hela den katolska världen finns statyer av Sankt Bosco och Sankt Dominic.
Kina hade (har?) sin absurda kult av den unge soldaten och kulturhjälten Lei Feng: ”Följ Kamrat Lei Fengs exempel”.
Sovjetunionen hade sin Pavlik Mozorov som förrådde sin regimfientlige far. Efter det att Sovjetmyndigheterna avrättat hans dagars upphov blev Pavlik mördad av upprörda släktingar. Den trettonårige Pavlik tillägnades en mängd dikter, biografier, en symfoni, en opera och flera filmer. Så gott som varje samhällssystem tycks skapa egna ungdomshjältar. Präktiga ynglingar som är alltför bra för att vara sanna.
Det är inte enbart helgon, idrottare, revolutionshjältar och unga genier som tjänar som förebilder, utan även något så allmänna och diffusa begrepp som ”alla andra”, eller så kallade ”normala personer”. Idiotiska generaliseringar, liksom ”folket” och andra allomfattande, onyanserade vansinnesförenklingar som ständigt brusar omkring oss. Ett jämförande med kreti och pleti har satt sig i skallen på oss och där rotat sig för att vi i en ständig jakt efter perfektion skall piska oss genom tillvaron, ända tills dess vi på dödsbädden tvingas erkänna: ”Om jag bara hade glatt mig då jag kunde. Förbi! Förbi."
Som barn och yngling var jag en entusiastisk läsare av seriemagasinet Illustrerade Klassiker. Dessvärre slängde min mor en gång då hon städade vårt vindsförråd alla de där seriemagasinen, tillsammans med Bang! (som innehöll ovanligt vältecknade serier översatta från franskan) och Kalle Anka & Co. Hon trodde säkert att jag lagt dem där uppe eftersom de inte längre intresserade mig, fast det var tvärtom så att jag ville bevara dem. Förlusten är kanske inte så stor. Om jag nu återbesökte de där tidningarna skulle jag inte att finna all den magi som slukade mig som barn.
Bland de Illustrerade Klassikerna utgjorde nog Faust min största läsupplevelse. Jag återkom till den gång på gång. Seriemagasinet var unikt i så måtto att det tolkade såväl Sorgespelets första del, som dess andra. Faust del två är betydligt svårtillgängligare än den första delen och det dröjde länge innan jag kunde läsa den i original.
Min morfar hade i sitt bibliotek en praktutgåva av Fausts första del. Det var Viktor Rydbergs översättning, överdådigt illustrerad av en viss August von Kreling. Jag läste den flera gånger, men det gick en hel del år innan jag kunde läsa andra delen i Britt G. Hallqvists lättlästa och smidiga översättning. Äntligen tyckte jag mig ha fått ett visst grepp om det mäktiga verket, som likt andra klassiker kan läsas flera gånger och tolkas på en mängd olika sätt. Emellanåt är Goethes Faust tung och tradig, men läst med lugn, tålamod och eftertanke blir upplevelsen stimulerande.
För något år sedan såg jag Alexander Sokurovs klaustrofobiska film Faust, som vid 1800-talets början helt och hållet utspelar sig i en liten tysk, nergången småstad. Jag fann en hel del vara fullkomligt obegripligt, men filmen blev likväl en i det närmaste hypnotiskt intensiv upplevelse, med bilder som etsade sig fast i minnet. En förvriden, underlig drömversion som i all sin egenart gav en fördjupad och oväntad vinkling på Fausthistorien som trots att den, likt en historia av Kafka, begränsades inom liten värld öppnade sig mot oanade bråddjup. Genom sin underliga snårighet är nog Sokurovs faustversion, även om den emellanåt är helt annorlunda än Goethes berättelse, den tolkning som enligt min mening ligger verket närmast.
För mig handlar Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust (det finns flera romaner om Faust) om strävan efter perfektion. Vetenskapsmannen/magikern Faust söker en mening/lag som styr hela tillvaron. Med andra ord söker han Gud, sinnebilden för fullkomlig perfektion.
Dramat inleds i Himlen där Mefistofeles, som antingen är Djävulen eller en demon i hans tjänst, möter Gud. Men innan dess presenteras ett ”förspel” på en teater där föreställningen strax skall gå av stapeln. Salongen håller på att fyllas, om några minuter går ridån upp. Gripna av rampfeber diskuterar en teaterdirektör, en författare och en narr in i det sista om vad de vill att föreställningen skall leda till. Direktören vill att den skall bli en succé, att åskådarna skall uppskatta spektaklet och få även andra att besöka hans teater så att föreställning efter föreställning blir slutsåld. Författaren vill egentligen inte göra ett spektakel av sitt verk. Dagar och nätter har han i ensamhet lagt ner sin själ i verket. Narren kräver att föreställningen skall bli underhållande, ett imponerade spektakel.
Genom inledningen fastslår Goethe att det väldiga verket är en saga. Att dramats gestalter inte är ”verkliga” människor. De är enbart figuriner, kanske till och med dockor (under Goethes tid var det vanligt att framställa Faustlegenden som kasperteater). Vi skall inte suggereras att tro att det rör sig om existerande individer. De är uppdiktade symboler i ett sedelärande skådespel.
Mefistofeles är en lögnare. Genom en väv av lögner döljer han sanningen att människor egentligen bör använda sin kunskap för att hjälpa andra och ta vara på naturens gåvor. Istället inbillar Mefistofeles sina offer att de mår bäst då de tillfredsställer egoistiska drifter. Söker välbefinnande och framgång på andras bekostnad, frossar i sexuella behov utan tanke på andras känslor, utövar makt genom att undertrycka andra, gläder sig åt andras olycka. Då vi genom list och bedrägeri söker vällevnad och samlar pengar.
Det tycks om Oscar Wilde i sin Dorian Grays porträtt även han introducerade en mefistofelesfigur. Hos Wilde heter frestaren Lord Henry Wotton. En elegant herre anfrätt av ”felaktiga, fascinerande, förgiftande och förtjusande teorier”. En charmerande konversatör, en spirituell sällskapsmänniska begåvad med ett beundransvärt intellekt. Inte undra på att den stilige, men naive Dorian Gray blir tjusad av Lord Wottons briljanta argumentationsteknik och snart anammar de radikala teorier som den dekadente och uttråkade adelsmannen exponerar för att chockera sin omgivning. Lord Wotton ifrågasätter varje etablerad sanning och ersätter den med en sybaritisk njutningslära:
”Livet styrs inte med hjälp av vilja eller föresatser. Livet är en fråga om nerver och fibrer och långsamt uppbyggda celler, i vilka tanken gömmer sig och lidelsen har sina drömmar. Du kanske inbillar dig att du är säker och tror att du är stark. Men en oberäknad färgton i ett rum eller en morgonhimmel, en speciell parfym, som du en gång har tyckt om och som för med sig ömtåliga minnen, en rad ur en bortglömd dikt som du stöter på igen, en kadens ur ett musikstycke som du har slutat spela – jag säger dig Dorian, att det är sådana saker som betyder något i våra liv.”
Det är först när Dorian Gray blir förtvivlad som han inser att Lord Wottons lära var falsk och fördärvlig. Hans bejakande av frestelser blev orsaken till att Dorian Gray sökte tillfredsställelse på andras bekostnad och därmed förstörde både sitt och andras liv. Oscar Wilde tycktes mena att det sköna, konsten/estetiken, inte hade annat syfte än att skänka njutning, glömska och lindring. Som en flykt från den groteska verklighet Dorian Gray skapat genom egoistiska utsvävningar låter Wilde honom söka lindring i estetik – elegant heminredning, utsökta parfymer, vackra kläder, skön konst, god litteratur, vacker musik – för att på så sätt befria sig från ett alltmer söndergnagande dåligt samvete. Dorian Gray hade inbillat sig att ett ohejdat driftsliv var det samma som fullkomlig frihet:
Enda sättet att bli av med en frestelse är att ge efter för den. Om ni motstår den blir er själ sjuk av längtan efter det som våra monstruösa lagar har gjort monstruöst och olagligt.
Men genom att bedra andra bedrog han sig själv och den slutgiltiga följden av Dorian Grays hänsynslöshet blev att han gick under, föraktad av sig själv och de han lärt känna och korrumperat.
Oacar Wilde hade inte läst Søren Kierkegaards böcker, varken Stadier på livets väg eller Antingen – eller, i vilka den danske filosofen analyserar den estetiske mannen. En person fängslad av ett pärlband av njutningsrika episoder. I fruktan över att förlora sin njutning koncentrerar esteten sig på ögonblicken, varigenom hans personlighet fragmenteras. Esteten förlorar sig själv. Han vet inte längre vem han är. En skådespelare som vandrar från roll till roll, från sensation till sensation. En lögnare som inte ger sig tid för att reflektera över sina handlingar.
Esteten undviker moral och förpliktelser, väljer att inte ta ställning, varken för att hjälpa andra eller för att hävda en ideologi. På så vis hamnar esteten slutligen i ett förlamande tillstånd inom vilket enbart två val återstår – ta livet av sig eller ompröva sin livsinställning. Till skillnad från esteten tar en etiker ansvar för sina handlingar. För Kierkegaard, som var djupt kristen, innebar moral att förlita sig på Gud – ett ofattbart väsen, fritt och höjt över tidens och rummets begränsningar, evigt och oändligt. En absurditet som vårt intellekt inte kan fatta. Därmed har religion med tro att göra och är därigenom annorlunda än vetenskap. Tro är en personlig upplevelse, oförklarlig och fjärran från vetenskaplig kunskap.
Den sanning Mefistofeles predikar i Goethes Faust är likt Lord Wottons njutningsevangelium en livslögn. Mefistofeles namn kommer antagligen från hebreiskan och gestalten tog form under försök att förklara varför det är så lätt att locka även en god människa från rättfärdighetens väg. Var och en av oss löper risken av att genom våra sinnliga begär lockas från den sanna tron. Det är därmed lätt att inbilla sig att det förutom Gud och hans änglar existerar en mäktig och ond kraft – en Frestare. Antagligen är vi omgivna av demoner, kanske en hel arme, en legion, av sataniska djävlar. Ledare för en av dessa ondskefulla horder blev Mefistofeles, vars namn bestod av orden מֵפִיץ (mêp̄îṣ) spridare och ט֫פֶל שֶׁ֫קֶר (tōp̄el šeqer) lögnmurare.
Som flera andra lögnare använder sig Mefistofeles av cynisk charm. Han är rolig, allvetande, spirituell och kvick, just så som en skicklig manipulatör bör vara. Samtidigt en underhållande kamrat och stor människokännare, välbekant med skiftande miljöer inom vilka han rör sig som fisken i vattnet. Givetvis framställer Mefistofeles sig inför Gud som en undergiven tjänare, dock har han en världs- och människouppfattning som är vitt skild från den allomfattande vishet som Universums Härskare besitter.
Mefistofeles är oförmögen att inse sin ideologis begränsningar. Han lider av tunnelseende. En inskränkthet som gör att han uppfattar människan som en driftvarelse.enligt honom styrs alla mänskliga begär av en obehärskad strävan att tillfredsställa sina egna behov. Ju mer du odlar dessa ju mänskligare blir du. Att ge sig hän åt ett pockande driftsliv, utan tanke på andra människors välbefinnande, blir därmed din främsta strävan. Din livslögn.
Den enskilda, egocentriska människan är för Mefistofeles sinnebilden för allt mänskligt. Den perfekta människan vars alla behov har blivit tillgodosedda. En idol. Ordet kommer från grekiskans εἴδωλον, eidōlon, bild, det vill säga något som inte har någon verklig existens. En tolkning av verkligheten, en fantasiskapelse. En idol är en Övermänniska, förmer än vanliga, dödliga personer. En Superlögn, en skapelse av lögnernas mästare och demon – Mefistofeles.
Övermänniskan tror sig vara sig själv nog. Hon behöver ingen Gud och Herre. Genom sin tro att Gud är död inbillar sig den aningslösa Övermänniskan att hon blivit kvitt alla mänskliga fel och brister. Men hon begriper inte att Guds död är Djävulens seger. Med Gud ur leken behärskar lögnens och egoismens Mästare världen. Övermänniskan är därmed, liksom Mefistofeles, en mycket ensam varelse.
Som många egocentriker är Mefistofeles en spelare. Någon som tror att materiell vinst ger lycka och framgång. Som räknar livets värde i pengar och tillbehör. Han kan därför inte avhålla sig från att gå in i en chanslös vadhållning med Gud. Mefistofeles tror sig veta att han genom en vinst i ett så desperat, och kallblodigt spel har chansen att erövra världsherraväldet. Han vill övertyga Gud om att han har fel och därigenom få honom att förlora spelet om människors själar. I själva verket är Mefistofeles en patetisk amatör i jämförelse med en mästerspelare som Gud, som har alla kort i hand och vet att hålla sitt trumfkort dolt fram till spelets sista avgörande moment.
Gud vet mycket väl vem Faust är, hur han studerar och kämpar för att nå sanningen om livets mening. Men för att nå fram till den sanna insikten borde Faust utsättas för livets alla frestelser och först då han förmått övervinna dem kommer Faust att komma till rätt tro och insikt. Utan att själv inse det är Mefistofeles i själva verket Guds tjänare. Genom att utstta Faust tillgång till jordiska frestelser och föra honom djupt ner i begärens hemvist tror sig Mefistofeles kunna få honom på fall. Gud vet dock att sådana erfarenheter enbart kommer att styrka Faust, öka hans kunskap och därmed kommer Mefistofeles att förlora vadet. Fausts erfarenheter kommer att frälsa honom från Helvetet, men först måste han frestas. Det är först efter att ha insett i vilka avgrunder som själviskt begär kan driva en människa som Faust kan mogna och bli verkligt vis:
Fast tjänaren ännu saknar sans och tukt,
skall han dock nå den klarhet, som han önskar;
så bidar odlaren blom och gyllne frukt
för år, som komma, när hans telning grönskar.
Dramats spänning, kombinerat med den mängd infall som Goethe kryddar anrättningen med, finns i läsarens/åskådarens undran om Faust skall nappa på de välagnade krokar som den försåtlige Mefistofeles låter dingla inför honom. Faust lyckas dock in i det sista klara sig ur de fällor som Mefistofeles gillrat. Det är Fausts aldrig tynande nyfikenhet som räddar honom. Hans osläckliga kunskapstörst och det faktum att inom honom flämtar kärleken till människorna, parad med en stor respekt för deras ständiga kamp att förbättra allt, inte endast för sig själva utan även för andra. Faust blir aldrig den fullfjädrade egoist som Mefistofeles måste förvandla honom till för att kunna dra ner honom i sitt permanenta Helvete.
Trots sina goda föresatser ställer Faust till med en hel del skada, främst genom att aldrig bli nöjd och tillfredsställd. Han finner ständigt något att beklaga sig över. I dramats början dyker Mefistofeles upp hos Faust just i det ögonblick då han i besvikelse över sig själv och tillvaron står i begrepp att ta livet av sig:
Ack, nu har jag läst filosofi
och medicin, juristeri
och dessvärre också teologi
från början till slut, med frenesi.
Och ändå är jag lika klok
som jag var förut, stackars tok!
Magister kallar man mig dock,
ja, rent av doktor – min lärjungaflock
drar jag vid näsan sen tio år,
i krokar och i krumbukter det går.
Att vi intet kan veta förstår jag och märker,
och jag förtvivlar, mitt hjärta värker.
Han ser sig kring i sin bokbemängda kammare, med dess värdelösa kemiska apparatur, herbarier, uppstoppade djur och foster i glasburkar. Allt är instängt, dammigt och unket. Hit har han kommit, inte längre. Faust har läst och studerat livet, men inte upplevt det – våldet, kärleken, smärtan och glädjen. I ett hopplöst sökande efter en mening har han har blint strävat vidare. Slutligen har Faust vänt sig till magi, vidskepelse, drömmar och spekulationer. Och då … plötsligt öppnas Helvetets portar och mörkrets makter manas fram. Mefistofeles som i skepnaden av en pudel har följt Faust in i hans ovädrade studerkammare uppenbarar sig för honom och kommer med ett oemotståndligt erbjudande – han skall förvandla den åldrade, nermjällade, gamle gnällspiken Faust till en attraktiv ung man och tillsammans skall de utforska världen, finna åtråvärda kvinnor, samla erfarenhet och rikedomar, uppleva lycka och skönhet. Mefistofeles tvingas genom avtalet att bifalla alla Fausts önskningar. Faust behöver enbart uppfylla ett villkor – om han någon gång blivit fullkomligt nöjd med det som Mefistofeles givit honom och ber att ett ögonblick skall förlängas – Verveile doch, du bist so schön, ”Dröj, du är så skön”, då blir han fördömd och kommer att för all evighet tillhöra Djävulen.
Efter ett långt liv under vilket Faust, likt var och en av oss, har gjort en mängd misstag, sårat och skadat sina medmänniskor, hamnar han slutligen i en situation då han som administratör över en region får möjlighet att förbättra sina undersåtars liv, speciellt genom att driva tillbaka havet, dika ut jorden och förvandla den till odlingsbara fält, alltså en kamp mot naturen för människans bästa – kultur mot natur. Likt en envåldshärskare tänker Faust dock göra det det med piska och morot:
Ge mig arbetare,
tusentals, till varje pris; betalning
och horor, använd piskan,
uppmuntra, bedåra, tvinga dem.
Varje dag vill jag ha nyheter
om hur långt de har kommit med sina diken.
Framför sig ser han målet för sin strävan och säger sig inte få ro förrän han har nått det:
På jorden fri står folket fritt:
den syn, det liv, det vare mitt!
Hör då, o ögonblick, de orden:
»Ack dröj! Du är så skön ändå!»
Ty spåret av min dag på jorden
kan i eoner ej förgå.
Till slut har alltså Faust uttalat de fatala orden Verveile doch, du bist so schön, ”Dröj, du är så skön”. Mefistofeles triumferar och står i begrepp att släpa med sig Faust till de eviga plågornas rike. I själva verket har Mefistofeles förlorat sin vadslagning med Gud. Djävulen kan enbart se till sinnliga njutningar och begär, hans makt och rike bygger blott och bart på egoism och falskt självförverkligande. Djävulen begriper inte att de flesta av oss faktiskt finner glädje i andras välbefinnande, just så som Faust tycks tänka vid slutet av dramat.
Faust är döende och det är uppenbarligen först nu i dödsögonblicket som han insett det som William Shakespears samtida, prästen John Donne skrev om i en av sina många begravningsdikter:
Ingen människa är en ö, hel och fullständig i sig själv
varje människa är ett stycke av fastlandet, en del av det hela
Om en jordklump sköljs bort av havet, blir Europa i samma mån mindre,
liksom en udde i havet också skulle bli,
liksom dina eller dina vänners ägor;
varje människas död förminskar mig,
ty jag är en del av mänskligheten.
Sänd därför aldrig bud för att få veta för vem
klockan klämtar; den klämtar för dig.
I Faust avslöjas Mefistofeles som Guds tjänare. Hans vadslagning med Gud gick ut på att testa Fausts pålitlighet. Gud tycks mena att Ein guter Mensch in seinem dunklen Drange ist sich des rechten Weges wohl bewußt, ”En god människa känner, sina mörka drifter till trots, den rätta vägen”. I Faust tycks Goethe mena att mänsklighetens främsta drivkraft borde vara att försöka förbättra tillvaron för var och en av oss. En tolkning som i varje fall tycks vara den som ligger närmast många av Fausts läsare. Men egentligen är det inte hela sanningen. Fausts önskan att få njuta av stunden tycks vara mer grundad på hans egocentriska drift efter berömmelse, än omsorg för det allmännas bästa.
Att göra den röriga, infallsrika, underliga, ironiska, svårtolkade och emellanåt skickligt skrivna Faust till en moraliskt upplyftande fabel om mänsklighetens högsta ideal vore att skjuta bortom målet. Faust är knappast någon moraliskt högstående individ, inget helgon. Han är en egoist som piskats genom livet av sina drifter och inte minst av sin lusta.
Som man söker Faust kärleken hos kvinnor. Das Ewig-Weibliche zieht uns hinan, ”det evigt kvinnliga för oss framåt”. Genom Goethes hela verk och liv samsas erotisk lust med vetenskaplig nyfikenhet och likaså i Faust. Kärlek och sexuell lust genomsyrar hela verket; passionerad åtrå – komisk, ömsint, obscen, extatisk, mystisk, grotesk.
Även den disciplinerade djupt religiöse Dante var besatt av kärleken i dess olika former, fast i hans mäktiga Komedi var det sökandet efter den högtstående, höviskt svärmiska, religiöst motiverade kärleken som förde honom genom Helvete, Skärseld och Paradis – åtrån efter Beatrice. Det var den gudomliga kärleken Dante sökte. Beatrice var ett ideal och inte längre en ”verklig” kvinna. Dante fick aldrig leva tillsammans med henne och då han skrev sitt mäktiga verk var Beatrice död. Vad Dante i sin dröm, i sin Himmelska komedi, jagade efter var den absoluta kärleken. Fast liksom Gothe är Dante också på jakt efter kunskap. Komedins Dante oavlåtligt nyfiken, frågvis och sökande.
I Faust kommer änglar kommer nerfarande från Paradiset för att ta med sig Fausts frälsta själ, sjungande Wer immer strebend sich bemüht, den können wir erlösen, ”Den som ständigt strävar och bemödar sig, honom kan vi frälsa”. De dyker upp i slutet av ett månfacetterat verk som egentligen inte alls likt Dantes Komedi var en religiös fabel utan snarast en hyllning till mänsklig fantasi, vetenskaplig drift och ett evigt sökande efter sanningen. Goethe var inte speciellt religiös, vad han fann i religionen var kärleken, men inte renodlat idelistisk som hos Dante, utan kärlek i alla sina aspekter, inte minst de erotiska.
I viss mån ger Goethe i sin Faustsaga svaret på varför vi bör bry oss om andra människors välbefinnande. Vi är naturligt sociala varelser. Vi lever i samhällen och ett sådant liv, såväl inom familjen som en större gemenskap, blir angenämare, mer stimulerande och tryggare om vi är omtänksamma och vänliga, istället för lättirriterade och fientligt inställda. Vi måste bejaka kärleken, men inte enbart som en exklusivt sexuell drift.
Goethe var lika övermodig som Dante, väl medveten om sitt stora kunnande inom en mängd områden. Han betraktade sig som större vetenskapsman än författare. Goethes konst var enbart en del av ett vetenskapligt sökande efter livets uppkomst och mening. Hur skulle all denna kunskap kunna förvaltas, användas och komma till nytta för andra? I ett brev förklarade Goethe: In mir reinigt sich’s unendlich, und doch gestehe ich gerne, Gott und Satan, Höll und Himmel ist in mir Einem, inom mig pågår en ständig reningsprocess, trots allt erkänner jag villigt att inom mig sammanblandas Gud och Satan, Helvete och Himmel”. Faust handlar om vilken del av människans natur som skall tillåtas ta överhanden – strävan efter det onda, eller strävan efter det goda.
Mefistofeles deklarerar Ich verachte nur Vernunft und Wissenschaft, des Menschen allerhöchste Kraft, jag föraktar enbart förnuft och kunskap, människans främsta styrka. Djävulen strävar efter att korrumpera vetenskap och kunskap. Få dem att tjäna egoistiska drivkrafter. Vetenskapsmän och lärare stödde såväl nationalsocialism som fascism. Berövas vi genom vår intelligens omsorg för natur och människor förvandlas den till sköld och vapen mot kärlek och respekt och tjänar därmed samma destruktiva syften som Mefistofeles, herre över lögn och synd. Människans sökande efter kärlek och godhet förminskas av denne demon till att bli en djurisk drift. Er nennt’s Vernunft und braucht’s allein, nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein, ”han [människan] kallar det förnuft men det gör honom enbart till mer djur än ett djur”.
Var det strävan efter kunskap och kärlek som förde mig till universitet i Lund? Inte en aning, men då jag kom dit kändes det som en befrielse, kanske inte helt väsensskild från den som Faust kände då Mefistofeles förvandlat honom från att vara en sliten, gammal gubbe till att bli stilig ung man. Efter att ha lämnat familjeskötet och den tråkiga, begränsande barndomsstaden bakom mig var jag fri att i Lund sköta mig själv. Likt Faust kastade jag mig in i studier av sådant jag gillade – litteratur-, konst- och religionshistoria, och inte minst Drama, teater, film. Jag upplevde en del omtumlande romanser och deltog med liv och lust i olika festligheter, inte minst nattliga sjöslag med likasinnade vänner, samt en och annan utflykt till städer som var än mer öppna och spännande än Lund, som Köpenhamn och Berlin.
Givetvis fanns där en del irritationsmoment. Lund hade sin beskärda del av tröttsamma allvetare som imponerade på sin omgivning med prestigebemängd kunskap. Det var sjuttiotal och chickt att att vara radikal; Mao, Lenin, Che Guevara och Marx hyllades. ”Radikala intellektuella” vurmade för världsrevolution, familjens och religionens död, internationell solidaritet och vikten av att organisera sig för att bekämpa Staten och Kapitalet. Medan de strödde ut intetsägande citat av Mao, Marx och Hegel blev de ytterst irriterade om deras mediokra axiom ifrågasattes. De hyllade enpartistater med förtryckande byråkrati och kallade deras hjärntvättande ideologi för ”praktiskt genomförd socialism”. Om jag kom dragande med sådant de fördömde, föraktade eller ignorerade, stämplades jag omgående som ”höger-reaktionär” och överöstes med glåpord och ironiska kommentarer. Den allmänna inskränktheten gick mig på nerverna och det hjälpte föga att jag försökte få ordning på mina åsikter genom att läsa Mao, Hegel och Marx. Jag begrep inte mycket av deras skrifter, De båda förstnämnda var i min mening tämligen hopplösa fall, fast en del av vad Marx hade skrivit fann jag vara såväl tänkvärt som välformulerat, även om jag långt ifrån kunde få något ordentligt grepp om hans omfattande skriverier.
Jag hade goda vänner från hemstaden. Claes, Stefan och Didrik var måttligt politiskt intresserade. Med dem kunde jag diskutera andra väsentligheter. Då det gällde politik och filosofi blev min korridorkamrat Mats Olin en fast klippa och referenspunkt. Han kommer liksom jag från Göingebygden, men till skillnad från mig hade han gedigna språkkunskaper; läste obehindrat engelska, tyska och franska, till och med spanska begrep han. Mats var kunnig i mycket som rörde politik, filosofi och socialantropologi, dessutom läste han en mängd skönlitteratur långt bortom sådant som ansågs vara obligatorisk läsning för vänsterradikala sektmedlemmar.
Det var genom Mats jag upptäckte alternativ till den uppenbarligen allenarådande, likformade och ofta våldsbejakande totalitarismen som torgfördes runtomkring mig. Han gjorde mig uppmärksam på Frankfurtskolan, på Marcuse, Illich, Castoriades, Baudrillard, Feyerabend och en mängd andra nytänkare och kritiker av likriktning och slentriantänkande. Genom Mats öppnade sig en helt ny värld för mig, underblåst av mitt ökade intresse för mystik och ”främmande” kulturer. Mats blev orsaken till att jag kom att intressera mig för situationisterna och under en av våra resor till Köpenhamn köpte jag ett par danska översättningar av väsentlig situationistlitteratur, Guy Debords Skådespelssamhället och en antologi – Det finns ett liv efter födslen.
I Lund fanns en situationist som jag blev flyktigt bekant med. Ibland träffade jag den originelle Jean Sellem på Spisen där det hände att han på kvällarna häckade i ett hörn tillsammans med överliggaren Maxwell Overton. Jean Sellem drack alltid te, medan Maxwell drack billigt Beyaz, det var illa nog som det var och än värre blev det av att Maxwell lade sockerbitar i vinglaset.
Sellem talade gärna och var på ett smittsamt gott humör. Möjligen ett tiotal år äldre än jag fann jag honom vara en ovanligt stimulerande bekantskap, fylld med roliga infall, förbluffande insikter och en klurig, oförutsebar humor som underströks av hans i mina ögon lustigt starka franska accent, buteljtjocka glasögon, ovårdade och bångstyriga svarta hår. En sann bohemkonstnär och en frisk fläkt bland alla de bokstavstroende ”vänsterintellektuella” av vilka flera inte alls uppskattade den anarkistiske Sellem vars Galleri St. Petri för experimentell och marginell konst låg mitt emot Lunds Bokcafé, ”obunden och osekteristisk vänsterbokhandel specialiserad på samhällsinriktad, radikal och marxistisk litteratur”.
Jean Sellem hade varit ansluten till Situationist Internationalen (SI), men den hade upplösts 1972 efter det att många av dess medlemmar hade uteslutits efter att ha blivit skeptiskt inställda till den alltmer dogmatiska vänsterrevolutionära riktning som de tyckte att rörelsen slagit in på. Då jag träffade honom tycktes Jean Sellem vara mer atrtraherad av Fluxusrörelsen, även den en konstriktning, men betydligt mer omfattande, tvärkulturell och diffus än SI. Fluxus hade inget formellt medlemskap men många av samtidens mest respekterade konstnärer räknades som fluxusartister; exempelvis John Cage, Joseph Buys, Nam June Paik, Terry Reily, Öyvind Fahlström, Carolee Schneeman och Wolf Vostel. De ägnade sig liksom Sellem åt konceptkonst, men han hade distansierat sig från det kändisskap som frodades inom fluxusrörelsen och var mer attraherad av den grupp som identifierade sig som SI 2, eller Situationist Bauhaus, och som leddes av Asger Jorns bror Jørgen Nash. Denna så kallade Andra Situationistinternationalen var mer inriktad på konst än den första och hade sitt centrum i konstnärskollektivet Drakabygget utanför Örkelljunga i norra Skåne.
Sellem tyckte det var fascinerande att min far kände Jørgen Nash, något han fått bekräftat då de träffats och Nash konstaterat att han räknade Axel Lundius på lokaltidningen Norra Skåne som ”en av oss”. Någon tid efter det att jag lärt känna Jean Sellem var han invecklad i en komplicerad strid med Lunds Kommun som beslutat att dra in kulturbidraget till hans galleri. Efter det att jag en gång läst upp några noveller, Gottegrisen och Det blödande barnet, på hans galleri räknade Sellem mig uppenbarligen som en supporter och han publicerade två av mina teckningar i ett av sina magasin. Sellem var en flitig publicist och allt som skedde i hans galleri dokumenterades noggrant och arkiverades i hans Arkiv för för experimentell och marginell konst.
En dag dag då jag steg in hans galleri kom Sellem springande och ropade på sin oefterhärmliga fransk-svenska:
– Ah Lundius! Kom in, kom in! Stäng dörren fort så kaninen inte smiter ut!
Jag gjorde som han sa och såg mig förvirrad omkring. Inte fanns det någon kanin där. Golvet i galleriets utställningssal var täckt med tidningsremsor och mitt bland dem låg ett stort salladshuvud som Sellem varje morgon inhandlade på Saluhallen. Där fanns dock ingen kanin. Installationen var en del av en utställning med en ”imaginär” kanin.
Sellem var som alltid då jag träffade honom på strålande humör och emellanåt avbruten av sitt kluckande skratt berättade han om en protestaktion han skulle utföra tillsammans med en nyfunnen vän, grafikern Andrzej Ploski som tämligen nyligen anlänt från Kielce i Polen. Ploski hade problem med Konstnärernas Riksförbund (KRO) och Sellem bråkade som sagt med kommunen. På ett av galleriets stora glasfönster hade han med stora bokstäver skrivit ”Censurerat av S [Socialdemokraterna] och M [Moderaterna] i Lund”. Eftersom Sellem inte längre fick kulturstöd från kommunen planerade han nu att trycka upp egna sedlar och sälja dem för en tia styck, som bistånd för sitt galleri. De skulle designas av Ploski, ges ut av något som kallades Lundada Bank och betecknas som renpengar, uppkallade efter kommunens socialdemokratiske ordförande Birger Rehn. ”Bankens” motto skulle tryckas på sedlarna: ”Enighet ger stryk. En för alla, alla för ren”.
Sellem arbetade också med att framställa en bok med sexton helsidesgravyrer av Andrzej Ploski. De tänkte kalla boken för Lundius commedia dell´arte och Sellem undrade om det var OK för mig och mina släktingar om de använde sig av vårt släktnamn. Jag förklarade att det hade mina släktingar säkerligen inte alls något emot. Då boken publicerades gav mig Sellem flera exemplar av den, samt ett antal affischer som Far skickade till sina bröder och mina kusiner. Han ramade in sitt eget exemplar och hängde det i hallen till mitt barndomshem.
Genom böckerna som Mats Olin fått mig att köpa och bekantskapen med Jean Sellem blev jag alltmer intresserad av situationisterna. Innan han hamnat i Lund hade Sellem luffat runt i Europa och mestadels försörjt sig som trottoarkonstnär. En längre tid hade han tillbringat i Tyskland där han även fått en dotter, Marie-Lou Sellem, som numera är en tämligen välkänd skådespelerska i Tyskland, speciellt som hon skapat sig en karriär inom TV där hon medverkat i flera filmer och serier. Efter sin tid i Tyskland studerade Sellem vid en konstskola i Köpenhamn. För mig berättade Sellem att han en tid därefter i Finland hade funnit att han kunde leva på att sälja sin konst, något som oroat honom och fick honom att i sann situationistisk anda avstå avstå från eget inkomstbringande konstnärligt skapande och istället började hjälpa andra konstnärer att skapa ”situationer” som skulle kunna väcka folk till insikt om ”sakernas verkliga tillstånd”.
Jean Sellem kom till Sverige och Lund, blev förtjust i den lilla staden och träffade Marie Sjöberg, som han blev ihop med. Hon var hans medhjälpare, fotograf och alltiallo då de mellan 1970 och 1982 tillsammans drev Galleri Skt. Petri. Då jag undrade vad han levde på förklarade Sellem att Lunds kommun ända tills nu villigt ställt upp på hans sida och gett kulturbidrag till hans galleri, samt att han för sitt eget välbefinnande kunde räkna med stöd från sin co-worker, det vill säga Marie, som arbetade som nattvak på Lunds lasarett. Då jag frågade honom om hans livsföring var i enlighet med situationisternas ideal, förklarade Sellem att det var så han tolkade den.
Fram till 1972 hade Guy Debord (1931-1994) varit den mest framträdande personligheten inom situationiströrelsen, dess sekreterare, strateg, filosof och tuktomästare som regelbundet accepterade eller uteslöt medlemmar ur en sammanslutning som han vägrade benämna ”organisation”. Rörelsen, eller vad den kunde kallas, grundades 1957 under namnet Situationistiska Internationalen (SI). Dess ”ideologi” fastställdes 1960 i ett manifest, vars inledning deklarerade:
Det befintliga Systemet kan inte undertrycka den nya mänskliga kraft som ökar dag för dag samtidigt med en obeveklig utveckling av tekniken och ett stigande missnöje med dess möjliga användning i vårt allt meningslösare sociala liv.
Situationisterna hade upplevt framväxten av förtryckande totalitära stater, Andra världskrigets besinningslösa förödelse med dess kulmen i industriellt effektiva utrotningsläger och atombombers verkningsfulla utplånande av mänskligt liv. Det var en tid präglad av en alltmer omfattande kapitalism, sovjetvälde och etablerandet av flera kommunistiska regimer. Det var också en tid märkt av tvivel och protester, ackompanjerade av alternativ konst i form av free jazz, abstrakt-expressionistiskt måleri och upplösning av traditionella berättartekniker. Det situationistiska manifestet deklarerade att människans slaveri under fördummande lönearbete enbart gynnar ett fåtal kapitalister, understödda av en varufetischism som ersatt det verkliga livet med konsumtion av produkter vars kvantitet överskuggar och förstör dess kvalité. Situationisterna eftersträvade att göra varje människa till artist, istället för att förbli en alienerad kugge i framställandet av meningslösa produkter.
Vi måste ta till vara vår inneboende skaparkraft, befria vår lekfullhet. Göra livet till en fest och med fantasins kraft gå till storms mot ”specialisterna”, lakejer som i kapitalismens tjänst likriktar vår tillvaro genom sina kommersiellt betingade manipulationer. Var och en av oss borde erbjudas möjligheten att bli en ”amatör-expert” delaktig i ett rikare, lekfullare, öppnare samhälle, istället för att som nu begränsas till att vara en trist konsument-producent.
Det finns ett liv efter födseln! Var realist, begär det omöjliga! De köper din lycka, stjäl den tillbaka! Tristess är kontrarevolutionärt! Chefen behöver dig, du behöver inte honom! Stalinismen är ett ruttnande kadaver! Förbjud förbud! Stranden finns under gatstenarna!
En ny öppenhet skulle manifesteras genom realiserandet av ”situationer”. Ett första steg vore att befria konsten från marknadskrafternas strupgrepp som genom att prissätta den har förvandlat all konst till en vara. En angelägen, brådskande situation var enligt manifestet att genomföra en spektakulär kupp mot en institution som för situationisterna var en sinnebild för förtryckarstatens byråkratiska strävan att likrikta konst, vetenskap och utbildning i syfte att få dem att tjäna ett samhälle inom vilket allt har ett penningvärde
UNESCO, FNs organisation för vetenskap, utbildning och kultur var koncentrerad till en byggnad inom vilken en utvald skara högavlönade experter bestämde vilken form av ”kultur” som borde få globalt stöd. En situation rekommenderad av det situationistiska manifestet vore att omgående ockupera UNESCO och använda dess huvudkvarter som utgångspunkt för proklamerandet av ett förhållningssätt som skulle leda till att alla människor blev delaktiga i skapandet av en tillvaro fylld av tillit, kärlek och fantasi.
En sådan negativ inställning till UNESCO och den kommersiella värdesättningen av konst tycktes motsägas av en stor målning av Asger Jorn som jag brukade passera i en av UNESCOs stora foajéer då jag för tio år sedan verkade som en oväsentlig kugge i organisationens väldiga maskineri. Den inköptes 1958, samma år som UNESCOs ståtliga huvudkvarter invigdes i Pars. Den danske konstnären Asger Jorn var god vän till Guy Debord och en av initiativtagarna till den Situationistiska Internationalen.
Asger Jorn tjänade redan då pengar på sin konst och blev genom åren en viktig drivkraft och betydande finansiärför situationisternas olika verksamheter. Asger Jorn (1914-1873) hette egentligen Asger Oluf Jørgensen och var en förbluffande energisk mångsysslare. Tjugotvå år gammal hade han skrapat ihop tillräckligt med pengar för att köpa en motorcykel och for med den till Paris i syfte att studera konst för den berömde Vasilij Kandinsky, men då denne visade sig vara deprimerad, trött, gammal och utfattig började Jorn istället studera för Fernand Léger och blev bekant med den kände konstruktivistiske arkitetekten Le Courbusier. Under Courbusier arbetade Asger Jorn med utsmyckningen av Paviljongen för Nya Tider, en del av 1937 års legendariska världsutställning.
Efter att ha beundrat Le Courbusier kom Jorn snart att betrakta hans ”misantropiska bostäder” som trista och sterila. Framförallt fann han att den ”funktionalism” som Le Courbusier företrädde låste fast den totalupplevelse som sann konst borde bidraga till. En frigörelse av varje enskild individs skaparkraft och fantasi. Alla människor borde ges möjlighet att medverka till framväxten och förändringen av sin närmiljö. Städer borde vara levande organismer, inte förstelnade i fastslagna former och system, utan dynamiska och föränderliga i symbios med de människor som bor och vistas i dem. Jorn kom exempelvis att betrakta Le Courbusiers Plan Voisin från 1925, ett förslag att bygga om stora delar av Paris centrum, som en antites till hans eget urbana tänkande.
Efter att ha återvänt till Danmark fördjupade sig Jorn i studier av magi och fornnordisk konst. Under kriget anslöt han sig till den danska motståndsrörelsen och bidrog med artiklar till Helhesten, en tidskrift som hyllade folkkonst, nordisk hedendom och okontrollerad spontanitet. Dödsgudinnan Hels häst var ett danskt övernaturligt väsen; trebent och svart uppenbarade den sig i närheten av kyrkogårdar och för dem som mötte den förebådade den utmärglade fålen en snar död. Att uppkalla sin tidning efter en hotfull uppenbarelse ville de konstnärer som bidrog till den antyda att deras konst var ett dödligt hot mot nazisterna. Under kriget översatte Jorn Kafka till danska och började samla den stora mängd fotografier som slutligen kom att utgöra hans arkiv 10 000 år av nordisk folkkonst.
Efter kriget återupptog Asger Jorn sitt rastlösa resande och skapade kontakt med konstnärer världen över. Hans abstrakta målningar sålde bra och han blev alltmer välkänd. På Café Notre Dame i Paris bildade han 1948 tillsammans med författaren Christan Dotremont och konstnären Constant, pseudonym för Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys, konstnärsgruppen CoBrA, Namnet bildades av konstnärernas hemstäders första bokstäver; Copenhagen, Bryssel och Amsterdam. Strax efter anslöt sig de holländska konstnärerna Karel Appel och Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo (Corneille) som delade lägenhet med Constant. I sitt manifest deklarerade CoBrA att deras spontana konst var ett förnekande av den europeiska konstens dekadens som tagit sin början i och med Renässansen. De ville motarbeta all specialisering och ”civiliserade konstformer” och förordade istället en ”direkt” primitiv och barnslig konst, som byggde på en fri och glädjerik samverkan mellan material, fantasi och teknik, Deras konst skulle vara liktydig med ”hämningsfri vällust ”. CoBrA fick ett stort genomslag, men gruppen höll enbart ihop under ett fåtal år, en av orsakerna till upplösningen var att Asger Jorn inlett ett förhållande med Constants hustru.
Efter det att CoBrA upplösts 1951 återvände Asger Jorn till Danmark, deprimerad och svårt sjuk i tuberkulos. Men 1953 hade han lyckats samla sig och tillfriskna. Jorn som hade börjat intressera sig för keramik flyttade till kuststaden Albissola Marina i Ligurien, säte för den legendariska keramikfirman Giuseppe Mazzotti Manifattura Ceramiche som grundats 1903 och som efter att ha uppmärksammats av futuristledaren Tommaso Marinetti blivit ett produktionscentrum för futuristisk brukskonst och välkänd över hela Europa. Snart hade en mängd konstnärer samlats kring Asger Jorn, bland dem Constant som förlåtit sin forne vän för kvinnorovet, Jorn var numera gift med Constants exfru med vilken han hade två barn.
Constant satte igång arbetet med ett urbaniseringsprojekt han kallade Det nya Babylon och tillverkade stora modeller genom vilka han försökte skapa det dynamiska stadslandskap han ofta diskuterade med Asger Jorn.
Sin vana trogen hade Asger Jorn på kort tid skapat stimulerande kontakter med lokala förmågor. En av dem var kemisten och mångsysslaren Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio som i Alba, en mil norr om Albissola Marina, ägde en fabrik för framställandet av örtkarameller.
Pinot-Gallizio var en vänsterradikal politiker och satte Constant kontakt i med ledarna för ett romskt läger, där de tillsammans med invånarna började experimentera med att realisera sina idéer om alternativ urbanism inom vilken individuell skaparkraft skulle bidra med att skapa ett dynamiskt samhälle. Constant var musikaliskt begåvad. Han var en skicklig violinist och gitarrist som tidigt fascinerats av zigenarmusik, något som gjorde att han av romerna lärde sig olika improvisationstekniker och att spela cimbalom (tsymbaly).
Pinot-Gallizo utvecklade i sin fabrik i Alba, i samarbete med sin son och Asger Jorn, något han kallade för Pittura industriale, industriell konstframställning. Med hjälp av olika maskiner och tekniker framställdes i samarbete med lokalbefolkningen uppemot 70 meter långa dukar som fylldes med spontant skapad konst. De såldes sedan som metervara.
Sedermera skapade Pinot-Gallizio på gallerier i Turin, Paris och Amsterdam något han kallade Cavernas dell´antimetaria, Grottor av antimateria. En slags ”miljöer” framställda av målade dukar inom vilka galleribesökare rörde sig som i en labyrint och därinne överraskades av oväntade situationer.
Snart lockades en mängd storheter från den globala konstvärlden till Albissola Marina, bland dem Asger Jorns vänner från Paris – Guy Debord och hans fru Michèle Bernstein. De var ledande inom en riktning som kallades Lettrism, en rörelse som ville söka ursprunget till mänskligt tänkande och agerande. Genom att bryta ner språket till sina minsta enheter; stön, suckar, skrik och förvandla alfabetet till ursprungliga tecken och symboler ville de åstadkomma lossbrutna byggklossar som kunde användas för att bygga upp nya, mer spontana, personliga och fria uttryckssätt.
Lettrismen skapades av likasinnade ungdomar på efterkrigstiden Paris barer, billiga restauranger och sjabbiga hotell. I augusti 1945 hade den tjugoårige Isidore Goldstein hamnat i Paris, efter att under sex veckor utan pengar ha tagit sig genom Europa från sin rumänska hemstad Botşani. Med sig hade Isidore Goldstein en mängd dikter och skrifter inspirerade av hans idol och landsman Tristan Tzara (Samuel Rosenstock), som tillsammans med Hugo Ball 1916 i Zürich hade grundat Dadaismen. Isidore var ute för att chockera sin omgivning. Redan några månader efter sin ankomst till Paris blev han utkastad från Theatre du Vieux-Colombier, där en pjäs av Tzara spelades, efter att flera gånger ha vrålat ”Dada är död! Lettrismen har tagit dess plats”. Skandalerna hopade sig snabbt kring honom, 1949 hade Isidore lyckats få en roman publicerad, Isou ou la mécanique des femmes, Isou, eller kvinnornas mekanik. Den självbiografiska romanen var en hyllning till den sextonåriga, sedermera konceptkonstnärinnan Rhea Sue Sanders. Skandalen kom sig av att Isidore Goldstein hävdade att han samtidigt med sin älskarinna under fyra års tid hade älskat med 175 kvinnor och om tid hade funnits skulle han förklara hur han gått tillväga med var och en av dem. Isisore Goldstein bötfälldes med 2 000 francs, dömdes till åtta månaders fängelse och alla befintliga exemplar av boken förstördes. Efter någon månad suspenderades dock fängelsedomen.
Efter två år i Paris hade Isidore Isou, som Goldstein nu kallade sig, etablerat sig som en betydande kulturpersonlighet och det ansedda Gallimard publicerade två av hans böcker Introduction à une nouvelle poésie et à une nouvelle musique, Introduktion till en ny poesi och en ny musik och L'Agrégation d'un nom et d'un messie, Sammangyttring av ett namn och en Messias.
Efter sex år i Paris började Isou uttrycka sig genom film. Traté de bave et d´éternité, Traktat om slem och evighet, var uppdelad i tre delar, den första, Principen, visar hur folk rör sig på Paris gator ackompanjerade av utdrag från en föreläsning om film. Den andra delen, Utvecklingen, visar ett romantisk möte mellan en man och kvinna och består uteslutande av klipp från andra filmer. Det tredje ”kapitlet”, Beviset, består uteslutande av abstrakta bilder, däribland så kallade leaders, den följd av siffror som förr utgjorde startremsor till filmer. Inte många förstagångsbesökare lyckades genomlida hela förställningen och lämnade högljutt klagande lokalen. Då filmen senare visades under filmfestivalen i Cannes såg den inflytelserike mångsysslaren Jean Cocteu till att Traté de bave et d´éternité vann första pris i en nyinstiftad filmkategori – Den bästa avant-gardeföreställningen.
Isous obegripliga film är resultatet av två av lettristernas grundbegrepp, som sedan viadareutvecklades av situationisterna – détournement och dérive. Det första konceptet kan möjligen översättas som återvändande/återförande och innebar att konstnärer använde sig av massamhällets, kapitalismens och borgarskapets bilder och uttrycksmedel genom att förstöra och manipulera dem på ett sådant sätt så att de kunde användas för att betrakta världen på ett nytt sätt. Asger Jorn förklarade processen som en unik form av nyskapande: ”Enbart de som är förmögna att nedvärdera givna åsikter kan skapa nya värden”. Man använde sig av reklam, serietidningar, porrtidningar, B-filmer och hötorgskonst, klippte sönder dem, lade till nya meningar och antydningar och publicerade dem i magasin, som affischer eller filmer.
Asger Jorn skapade nya, kritiska konstverk Peintures modifiées, Modifierade målningar, genom att måla över billiga konstverk som han köpt på loppmarknader.
En möjlig översättning av derivé är ”driva omkring”. Det innebar att man utan mål och utan att engagera sig strövade kring i ett stadslandskap. Ett ”terapeutiskt” tillvägagångssätt som syftade till att rensa hjärnan från sitt ständiga arbete med att inom logiskt givna ramar organisera och underordna intryck.
Min äldsta dotter tog under sin tid som konst- och designstudent intryck av derivéteorierna, speciellt som de utvecklats av engelska psykogeografer. Hon tog stadskartor och ritade in slumpmässigt gjorda röda streck som det sedan gällde att följa så noggrant som möjligt, oavsett olika hinder. Hon konstruerade även en urbilab, en slags ”modifierad kompass” som manipulerades genom introduktionen av olika komponenter som gav skilda riktningsanvisningar. Urbilaben var tänkt att inspirera ”sin användare att utforska stadslandskapet på ett spontant och uppslagsrikt sätt”.
Året efter premiären på Isous film spelade hans sex år yngre adept Guy Debord in den om möjligt ännu obegripligare Hurlements en faveur de Sade, Vrål till de Sades förmån. En långfilm helt utan bilder. Den flackande filmduken förblir helt vit under uppläsningar ur en bok Isou skrivit om film, lösryckta dialoger ur John Fords Rio Grande, texter av James Joyce och Den franska Civilrätten. Under allt längre pauser mellan uppläsningarna blir filmduken helt svart och förblir så under de sista tjugo minuterna av den förvisso ganska tålamodskrävande förevisningen.
Medan han gjorde filmen ansvarade Debord för Lettristernas tidning Potlatch. Ordet betyder ”ge bort” och betecknade imponerande tillställningar under vilka ursprungsbefolkningen längs Nordamerikas västkust under dans och festande gav bort stora delar av sin egendom.
Potlatch trycktes en gång i månaden och delades ut gratis. Varje nummer inleddes med orden:
Alla texter som presenteras i Potlatch kan fritt reproduceras, imiteras och delvis citeras utan någon som helst hänvisning till originalet.
Det kom snart en brytning mellan Isou och Debord, de var knepiga personligheter och började i olika skrifter attackera varandra. Speciellt Isou blev ordentligt irriterad på Debord och hans Situationistinternational, som han betecknade som en neo-Naziorganisation.
Under sommaren 1957 besökte Guy Debord, hans hustru Michèle Bernstein och den engleske psykogeografen Ralph Romney, Asger Jorn och hans italienska likasinnade inom den av honom grundade gruppen M.I.B.I., The International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus. Asger Jorns gode vän, den unge filosofistuderande Piero Simondo, hade en faster som ägde ett hotell i byn Cosio d´Aroscia och där bildades under ymnigt vindrickande och våldsamt diskuterande den Situationistiska internationalen (SI).
Under de tolv och ett halvt år som organisationen verkade hade den som mest sjuttiofyra medlemmar (63 män och 11 kvinnor). Trots detta fåtal fick SI ett stort genomslag och inspirerade en mängd konstnärer, författare och filosofer. Guy Debord som fördjupade sig alltmer i filosofi och politik ansåg att SI:s mål egentligen inte kunde vara att skapa experimentella, engagerande konstverk/situationer utan att producera revolutionära medvetanden. Det kapitalistiska samhället och i minst lika hög grad de statskapitalistiska system i Sovjetunionen och Kina, hade neutraliserat alla försök att utmana kommersialismens och byråkratins hegemoni. Den borgerliga klassen hade approprierat den avantgardistiska kulturen, värdesatt all konst och därmed förvandlat den till en vara. Debords slutsats blev att 1962 utesluta alla konstnärer ur gruppen, något som dock inte hindrade att han tacksamt fortsatte acceptera pekuniära bidrag från en framgångsrik konstnär som Asger Jorn.
Även om situationisterna var starkt samhällskritiska och förordade en ”fullständigt ny” ny syn på liv och kultur var de barn av sin tid. I USA fanns The Beat Generation och i England Angry Young Men, två fenonomen som är exempel på en vildvuxen flora av ”alternativa rörelser” som växte fram på hela jorden. De flesta av dessa rörelser var starkt samhällskritiska, men till en början var de i allmänhet ”estetiskt” inriktade. Efterhand påverkades dock deras medlemmar av krigen i Algeriet och Vietnam, motståndsrörelser i Tredje Världen och vad en del av dem antog vara skapandet av samhällsalternativ i ”socialistiska” samhällen, likt de som etablerats på Kuba eller i Kina. Man fördjupade sig i Marx och Hegel och integrerade deras tänkande i sina skrifter och aktioner.
Debord menade att såväl nutidens kapitalism som kommunistiska totalitära system, var manifestationer av vad han kallade för skådespelssamhället, ett tillstånd där varufetischismens ”skådespel” hade reifakterat alla mänskliga relationer.
Begreppet Warenfetischismus, varufetischism, hade myntats av Karl Marx för att beskriva hur européer betraktar konsumtionsvaror som ”ting som genom sina egenskaper tillgodoser alla former av mänskliga behov”. Varor har blivit till källor för mänsklig tillfredsställelse istället för att inse att de i själva verket är resultat av hur mänskligt arbete har förvandlat naturresurser har människor börjat dyrka konsumtionsvaror. Vårt otyglade begär efter varor och tjänster har förvandlat dem till något eftersträvansvärt, något i det närmaste gudomligt, som begåvats med en egen existens bortom vår vardag:
En vara ser vid första ögonkastet ut att vara en självklar, trivial sak. En analys av den visar dock att den är ett mycket invecklat ting, fyllt av metafysisk spetsfundighet och teologiska griller. […] För att finna en analogi måste vi därför ta vår tillflykt till den religiösa världens dimmiga regioner. Här framträder den mänskliga hjärnans egna produkter såsom självständiga gestalter, som begåvats med eget liv och står i relation till varandra och till människorna. På samma sätt är det i varuvärlden med den mänskliga handens produkter. Detta kallar jag den fetischdyrkan.
Ordet reifikation kommer också från Marx. Det är skapat från tyskans Verdinglichung, som betyder förtingligande och kan användas för att beskriva hur vi människor har kommit att betrakta andra som om de vore ting och därmed har även sociala realtioner “förtingligats”. Vi inbillar oss att lycka, kunskap, prestige och samvaro kan köpas för pengar, precis som om de vore varor.
Enligt Guy Debord har kapitalismen omvandlat vårt samhälle på ett sådant sätt att vårt tänkande och våra känslor har förvandlats till upplevelser som kan köpas och säljas. Vad Debord benämner som skådespelssamhället är ett tillstånd inom vilket vi har förvandlat vår existens till en affärstransaktion. Vi har utplånat vår individualitet, vår fantasi och lekfullhet, alltmedan vi har förvandlats till konsumenter. Likt en grupp passiva åskådare till ett skådespel lapar vi i oss allt som erbjuds av ett manipulerande, kaptialistiskt system, som samtidigt ovabrutet förtrycker och underordnar oss under en opersonlig bryråkrati. Debord sammanfattade skådepelssamhället i fem punkter:
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Oavbruten teknisk förnyelse.
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Total integration av stat och ekonomi
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Hemlighållande av hur manipulationen fungerar.
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Spridande av lögner som inte går att besvara
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Förvandlandet av vår tillvaro till ett evigt, opåverkbart “nu”. Historia och filosofi har förlorat sin betydelse.
Skådespelssamhället måste bekämpas och brytas ner inifrån genom skapandet av omtumlande, tankeförändrande “situationer”. Men för att kunna lyckas med något sådant måste situationisten ställa sig vid sidan om konsumtionssamhället. Häri ligger en av rörelsens stora paradoxer.
Guy Debord ansåg att lönearbete kedjade oss vid kaptitalismens mördande byråkrati. Redan tidigt i sin ungdom klottrade han på en vägg: Ne Travaillez Jamais, arbeta aldrig. Likväl lönearbetade hans fruar. Debord gifte sig två gånger och hade flera älskarinnor. Exempelvis försörjde Michèle Bernstein sin make under en tid genom att skriva horoskop för kapplöpningshästar. Då en vän besökte Debord och hans andra fru, poeten, språkforskaren och historikern Alice Becker-Ho, på det våningshotell där de bodde konstaterade gästen att Alice gjorde allt hushållsarbete varvid Debord förklarade: “Hon diskar medan jag gör revolution”.
Debord “arbetade” genom att tänka och skriva och försörjdes då av andra, däribland Asger Jorn. Sedan 1971 då han träffade Debord, fram till sin död 1990 var förläggaren och filmproducenten Gérard Lebovici Debords viktigaste emotionella och finansiella stöd. Trots att han umgicks med förmögna och kända människor inom Paris jetset hade Lebovici en anarkistisk ådra som gjorde att han drogs till samhällskritiker och upptågsmakare som Debord, men Lebovici var dessvärre även attraherad av personer från kriminella kretsar. Den sjunde mars 1984 fann man honom skjuten i sin bil i ett garage vid Avenue Foch inte långt från Triumfbågen. Någon hade tre dagar tidigare skjutit honom på nära håll med fyra nackskott. Mordet blev aldrig uppklarat. Guy Debord som blivit mycket uppskakad av mordet drog sig tillbaka i en by i Loiredalen, där han tio år senare tog livet av sig genom att med ett gevär skjuta sig i munnen, han var då svårt svårt sjuk i sviterna efter en livslång alkoholism.
Redan 1960 utslöt Guy Debord, som trots situationisternas frihetsbudskap ofta verkade som enväldig diktator inom rörelsen, Pinot-Gallizio och flera tyska konstnärer. Under den femte situationistkonferensen som gick av stapeln i Göteborg 1962 kom det till öppen konflikt mellan de flesta konstnärerna och en grupp ”teoretiker” som stödde Debord. Följden blev att de flesta SI konstnärerna, bland dem konstnärsgruppen SPUR i München anslöt sig till Asger Jorns bror Jørgen Nash, som nyligen etablerat en konstnärskoloni kallad Drakabygget. Där behöll de sin tro på konsten som en livsförändrande aktivitet, men de var mer av apolitiska anarkister än de teoretiskt, aktivistiskt och politiskt inriktade SI medlemmar som lierat sig med Guy Debord. Av SI:s ursprungliga 74 medlemmar återstod enbart tjugofem.
Asger Jorn fortsatte trots sitt ökade internationella erkännande och inkomster att vara en originell särling i ständigt motsatsförhållande till konstetablissemanget. Exempelvis fann han bruket av att ge pris till ett konstverk fullkomligt befängt och då Guggenheimmuséet i New York beslöt sig för att tilldela sitt 1964 International Award till Jorn för hans verk Asfulla danskar avböjde han belöningen och sände ett telegram till juryns ordförande i vilket han deklarerade att han inte ville deltaga i dess ”löjliga spel”.
Jorns hade högt ställda ambitioner och var en flitig skribent som försökte ”rekonstruera filosofin utifrån en artists perspektiv”. Följaktligen gav han sig på Kirkegaards teorier om en etstetisk och etisk världsuppfattning. Han tvekade heller inte att angripa Niels Bohrs epokgörande arbeten kring kvantmekanik och vidareutvecklade den så kallade triolektiken. Ett begrepp som jag inte begriper mycket av, men som förklaras som ett ”mångvärde”, logiskt system som förutom värdebegreppen ”sant” och ”falskt” räknar med ett tredje, obestämt värde .
Asger Jorn var en uppskattad gäst på broderns Drakabygge. En av medlemmarna beskrev Jørgen Nashs förväntan inför Asger Jorns ankomst:
Då Nashs berömda bror kom till Drakabygget var allt en virvel av spänning. Nash behandlade det som om Gud, den Allsmäktige, var på väg. Hela tiden lät det "min bror, min bror". Ibland tänkte jag att om han säger ”min bror” en gång till kommer jag att strypa honom.
Jørgen Nash har av sig själv och andra beskrivits som en ”glad rebell”. Jean Sellem sa mig att han tyckte att Nash var en bättre konstnär än brodern Asger Jorn, som i sina verk är dystrare och allvarligare än den i sin konst ljusare, lättsammare och mer livsbejakande brodern. De hade haft en besvärlig barndom med sex syskon vars mor blivit änka efter det att hennes make omkommit i en bilolycka. Nash och Jorn började måla tidigt och de under den tyska ockupationen av Danmark engaerade de sig i den danska motståndsrörelsen. Nash flydde till Sverige där han under tid var inneboende hos min favoritpoet Gunnar Ekelöf och inledde sin karriär som ”aktionspoet”. Hans mest välkända tilltag var att såga av huvudet på Den Lille Havfrue i Köpenhamn. Han påstod att han lagt det i en hattask och grävt ner det i torvmosse i Tisvilde. Det har aldrig återfunnits trots att Nash genomled långa förhör av danska polisens mordrotel. Han dömdes aldrig för brottet eftersom han ansågs ”otillförlitlig” och att det följaktligen inte gick att lita på något av hans talrika och motstridiga erkännanden.
Min far berättade för mig om olika tilltag som iscensattes av konstnärskollektivet i Drakabygget, som han i sin egenskap av redaktionssekreterare och sedermera chefredaktör på lokaltidningen ofta varskoddes om. Exempelvis då konstnären Finn Sørensen i ”protest mot brutaliteten i världen” lät sig begravas levande i en ventilerad kista, försedd med telefon. Redan dagen efter grävdes kistan upp av polisen. Sørensen fördes till S:ta Marias Mentalsjukhus i Helsingborg, där en läkare förklarat att konstnären var i behov av omedelbar psykisk vård.
År 1975 dök Jens Jörgen Thorsen och Jörgen Nash upp i det danska Folketinget iförda randiga fångdräkter och försedda med tunga järnkedjor spred de flygblad i protest mot de angrepp mot yttrandefriheten som de ansåg bojkotten av Thorsens Jesusfilm utgjorde.
Då det gäller Thorsen har jag svårt för att stödja Drakabyggarnas åsikter och ”aktioner”. Emellanåt framstår både deras och SI:s ideologi dessvärre som puerilt pornografisk och även kvinnofientlig. Thorsons film Stilla Dagar i Clichy från 1970 bygger på Henry Millers i mitt tycke undermåliga kortroman med samma namn. Miller är en skicklig stilist och jag har med stort intresse läst flera av hans romaner och essäer, men i den där kortromanen framstår han i sin värsta, sensationella, misogyna och egocentriska dager. Thorsens film är trogen Millers roman och därmed irriterande och tämligen usel, speciellt genom den erbarmliga kvinnosyn som de båda verken exponerar.
Miller och Thorson sade sig vilja avslöja all den falskhet och tomhet som behärskar livet inom kapitalistiska samhällen och istället utforska hur något så naturligt som sex har förvandlats till tabu och konsumtionsvara. Trots detta antagligen välvilliga syfte håller jag fullkomligt med författarinnan Jeanette Winterson då hon i en recension av Fredrick Turners hagiografi Renegade: Henry Miller and the Making of ”Tropic of Cancer” öser sitt spirituella etter över Turner och Miller:
Miller, dissidenten, ville liksom varje annan kapitalist utnyttja sina sexslavar så billigt som möjligt. Då de inte kunde betala för deras tjänster räknade den verklige Miller, såväl som hans litterära projektion, ut hur de skulle kunna bedraga en kvinna genom en fiktiv romans. Vad de inte kunde köpa, stal de.
Situationisterna har anklagats för att vara en ”herrklubb” och det ligger en del sanning i det tillmälet. Deras tidskrifter var fyllda med lättklädda damer som saxsats från porrtidningar och försetts med tankväckande, eller utmanande, pratbubblor, totalt främmande för huruvid sådant skulle kunna uppfattas som kvinnokränkande. Dessutom var flera situationister, inte min Debord, Jorn och Nash, under en stor del av sina liv kända som notoriska ”kvinnojägare” och välkända situationister som Raoul Vaneigem, Jean-Pierre Bouyoux och Alexander Trocchi skrev, oftast under pseudonymer, grovt pornografiska romaner. Kvinnor som Michèle Bernstein, gift med Guy Debord, och Jacqueline de Jong, gift Asger Jorn, var utmärkta författarinnor och hade stor betydelse för formulerandet av situationisternas teser och texter, men som Bernstein senare konstaterade var de som hustrur underordnade sina män och inte mycket mer än staffagefigurer under de “situationer” som dessa iscensatte.
Thorsons planerade film om Jesu sexliv var enfaldigt pornografisk. Det Danska filminstituet utlovade finansiellt stöd och ett par scener spelades in. Protesterna blev omfattande redan innan filmandet på allvar kunde förverkligas – i England, Vatikanen och USA rasade religösa grupperingar mot det hela, något som givetvis förväntats av Thorsen som betraktade kalabaliken som utmärkt publicitetet. Manus till filmen hade publicerats och genom den bok Far fick av Jørgen Nash fann jag det vara usel, larvig och kvinnoförnedrande pornografi. Thorsen var knappast någon större författare och det alltför uppenbara syftet med hela det osmakliga projektet var att chockera så många som möjligt, ett annat var möjligen att tjäna pengar på smörjans chockverkan. Danska filminstitutet drog tillbaka sitt stöd och Thorsen kom nu att spela rollen som offer för västerländsk censur.
På Drakabygget hade Jørgen Nash som mål att kombinera konstskapande med lantbruk. Kor, får, svin, höns och hästar köptes in och han gjorde ambitiösa planer för arbetet. Man grävde dräneringsdiken och fick statliga bidrag, bytte konst mot mat och bensin, fast alltför mycket var beroende av Asger Jorns finansiella stöd och han tröttnade snart på att hålla den den usla jordbrukstanken på fötter. Jørgen Nash var definitivt ingen bonde och de bohemiska medlemmarna av konstnärskollektivet ville inte syssla med någon jordbruksverksamhet. De sålde konst för att hålla den knaggliga ekonomin igång. Konstnärer som Hardy Strid, Nashs tredje hustru Liz Zwick, samt Yoshio Nakajima kunde med tiden få bra betalt för sina verk och likaså Jørgen, som emellanåt signerade sina tavlor med ”Jorn” för att höja marknadsvärdet.
Drakabyggets jordbruk lades ner, men efter att under många år ha balanserat på ruinens brant förbättrades Nashs ekonomi successivt och till slut kunde han inför en författare som intervjuade honom 1999 stolt deklarera att
Jag är fattigpojken som blev miljonär. Men fram till 60-årsåldern hade vi ett evigt problem med att överhuvudtaget överleva.
Han poserade framför en tavla av den danske femtonhundratalsastronomen Tycho Brahe, beställt och betalt av en konstsamlare till ett pris av 184.000 kronor. På porträttet fanns en tredimensionell näsa av äkta silver. Nash förklarade:
- Tycho var en bock! Han hade över 200 barn! Men en av de äkta männen ville inte hålla tillgodo med hanrejskapet utan tog fem väpnare med sig till Uranienborg. Där skar de näsan av astronomen. För att i någon mån dölja sitt lyte skaffade sig Brahe en silvernäsa. [Då man 2010 öppnade Tycho Brahes grav i Prag fann man dock att näsan varit gjord av mässing].
Två år innan Jørgen Nash dog kunde Stiftelsen Drakabyggets Konsthall invigas år 2002, men stiftelsen gick i konkurs 2014 och dess konstverk såldes. Nyligen såg jag vid ett besök i min barndomsstad, Hässleholm, en annons i Sparbankens fönster:
F.d "Drakabyggets konsthall" i Örkelljunga är till salu! Renoverad och ljus utställningslokal om ca 215 kvm. I sidobyggnaden finns sex garage i bottenvåningen och en lägenhet på ovanvåningen. Ytorna kan t.ex. byggas om till lägenheter.
I Nashs och Jorns födelsestad, Silkeborg, har däremot Asger Jorns museum blivit en succé. Tavlorna som där finns utställda har värderats tilll cirka 250 miljoner.
Jean Sellems galleri stängdes. Kommunen upphörde med stödet till hans verksamhet och där galleriet låg finns nu en frisörsalong. Till hans försvar kan jag säga att Jean Sellems tankesätt och konstuppfattning gav mig mycket och hans kulturella betydelse var säkerligen för många minst lika stimulerande som andra kulturinsatser som Lunds kommun beslutat sig för att stödja. Jag är fullkomligt övertygad att inom det kulturklimat vi nu lever inom skulle ingen kommunstyrelse, och definitivt inte någon med sverigedemokratisk majoritet, stödja en glad anarkist som Jean Sellem. Han är inte någon som försöker chockera sina medmänniskor genom att angripa deras politiska eller religiösa uppfattningar. Jean Sellem är en homo ludens, lekande människa, som vill att vi också skall vara det. Att vi bör betrakta livet med öppnare och lättsammare blick än den som vardagslunken, byråkratin och allsköns problem låser in oss i.
Minns hur Sellem en gång då jag tittade in i hans galleri var ovanligt upprymd. Hans gode vän Andrzej Ploski hade mig ovetande mer eller mindre omedvetet skapat stort rabalder i Lunds centrum. Lunds Konsthall presenterade en utställning med verk av någon Sellem betecknade som ”stalinistfascist”, nämligen östtysken Willi Sitte, något som retade östflyktingen Ploski, som dessutom kände sig motarbetad av KRO, Konstnärernas Riksförbund.
Sellem tyckte att Ploskis ”aktion” var rolig, men jag ställde mig något tveksam till upptåget. Det var under en tid då många européer befann i ständig skräck inför hotande terroristattacker, inte som nu från islamistiskt håll utan från europeiska terrorgrupper som IRA från Irland, ETA från Baskien, RAF från Tyskland och Italiens Brigate rosse. Ploski hade tänkt lämna in en låtsasbomb till Konsthallen, ett paket på vilket han med stora bokstäver hade textat BOMB. Då ingen personal var på plats och Konsthallen stängd lade han paketet framför entrédörrarna och gick till den närbelägna restaurangen Stäket för att äta lunch. Då Ploski fick notan bad han kyparen skicka den till KRO, givetvis blev det bråk och efter det att Ploski tvingats betala fick han ett intyg från Stäket att han till en början krävt KRO på betalningen och med det i handen gick han till Sydsvenska Dagbladets lokalredaktion för att vidareutveckla sin protestaktion. På väg tillbaka från Sydsvenskan, som inte varit speciellt intresserad av Ploskis problem, fann han att Mårtenstorget spärrats av och att bombexpertis, som specialinkallats från Köpenhamn, med en fjärrstyrd robot höll på att avlägsna hans bombpaket. Det fördes sedan i ett specialfordon från platsen. Då paketet öppnats visade det sig innehålla en gummianka. Eftersom Ploski skivit sitt namn och adress som avsändare arresterades han på kvällen samma dag. Vilka följder Ploskis tilltag fick minns jag inte.
Även om Sellem hade roligt år Ploskis ”aktivism” tror jag inte att han själv skulle stödja eller ägna sig åt tilltag som var öppet illegala. Jag kan inte minnas några polisingripanden i samband med Sellems stödjande av ”marginell och experimentell konst”. Då jag nu kommer ihåg Sellem kommer jag att tänka på min gode vän Örjan, även han en inbiten lundabo. Samtidigt som Sellem arbetade med sitt gallleri var Örjan medlem i ett punkband, Bostonvärk, som ägnade sig åt musik, poesi och happenings. Liksom Sellem stratade han även ett bokförlag och dess första utgåva var en namnlös bok med anonyma bidrag i form av teckningar, dikter, essäer och noveller. Jag publicerade där novellen Det blödande barnet som jag läst upp på Galleri St. Petri. Även Örjan kände Jean Sellem och delade med honom sin optimism och tro på konstens omskapande kraft.
År 2013 gav Örjan ut en ny upplaga av en bok som Jean Sellem 1981 tryckte i elva exemplar – Sweden Today. Den nya upplagan tillverkades för hand i 85 numrerade exemplar som samtliga signerades av Jean Sellem och såldes till kunder som förhandstecknat sig inför tillverkningen. Det är en inbunden bok i stort format med 1000 helt svarta sidor. ”Resultatet av Jean Sellems mångåriga research, hans forskning kring läget i nationen”. Trots att många förutspått Örjan att det var vansinnigt att publicera Sellems bok blev efterfrågan stor och förlaget får ständigt förfrågningar om hur man skall få tag på boken. De 85 exemplaren är dock slutsålda och boken kommer aldrig att ges ut igen. Förlagets kommentar:
Vad är detta? En bläckbomb? En nihilistisk nedfärd i malströmmen? En inblick i svensk vardag av idag? Men alla sidor är ju helt svarta! Är det verkligen så här illa ställt med Sverige? Förmodligen, författarens analys är tveklöst mycket tydlig och i sin vältalighet också rätt svår att bemöta.
Av allt att döma har Sellem kvar sitt goda humör, men efter det att galleriet stängdes har han haft det besvärligt. Marie och han skildes åt och deras Arkiv för för experimentell och marginell konst skingrades. Möjligen har Marie kvar de flesta av alla de fotografier hon tog. Än värre är att en så konstnärligt inriktad man som Jean Sellem numera är nästan blind, han kan enbart urskilja ansikten, bild och text på mycket kort avstånd.
Jag finner att min essä blev betydligt längre än jag tänkt mig. Det blir kanske lätt så då vi tacklar ett så knivigt problem som meningen med livet. Jean Sellems svar finns kanske delvis förborgat i Sweden Today och Örjan gav sig på det på det i en läsvärd bok han kallade Livets Mening är en hägring. Dessa två böcker var den yttersta orsaken till varför jag gav mig in på mitt betydligt blygsammare företag. Det är nu dags att sluta min snåriga, slingrande väg genom Fausts och situationisternas irrande stigar, kanske gör jag det bäst genom en undran, behjälpt av en komplicerad, men likväl stimulerande, följeslagare nämligen Friedrich Nietzsche:
Tillvaron och världen är evigt rättfärdigad bara som estetiskt fenomen.
Andersen, Troels (1994) Asger Jorn: En biografi. København: Forlaget Sohn. Blomberg, Erik (1942) Engelska dikter: Från medeltiden till våra dagar. Stockholm: Bonniers. Burton Russell, Jeffrey (1986) Mephistopheles: The Devil in The Modern World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell. Chollet, Laurent (2004) Les situationnistes: L´utopie incarnée. Paris: Gallimard. Clason, Synnöve (1999) Pudelns kärna. En bok om Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Stockholm: Bonniers. Danchev, Alex (ed.) (2011) 100 Artists´ Manifestos: From the Futurists to the Stuckists. London: Penguin Classics. Debord, Guy (1972) Skuespilsamfundet. Humlebæk: Forlaget Rhodos. Ellmann, Richard (1988) Oscar Wilde. London: Penguin Books. Fazakerley, Gordon (1982) ”He was a Cannibal – About Asger Jorn”, https://www.fazakerley.dk/?page_id=160 Freud, Sigmund (2012) Das Unbehagen in der Kultur. Leipzig: Reclam. Glas, Peter (2006) Livets Mening är en hägring. Lund: Bakhåll. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1957) Faust: Sorgespelets första del. Stockholm Bonniers. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1961) Faust: Sorgespelets andra del. Stockholm: Bonniers. Hussey, Andrew (2001) The Life and Death of Guy Debord. London: Jonathan Cape. Kierkegaard, Sören (2007) Stadier på livets väg: Studier av skilda personer. Önneköp: Nimrods Förlag. Martin, Jeppesen Victor (ed.) (1972) Der er et liv efter fødslen: Situationistisk Internationale 1958-69. Humlebæk: Forlaget Rhodos. Marx, Karl (2018) Kapitalet: Första boken: Kapitalets produktionsprocess. Lund: Arkiv förlag. Nash, Jørgen och Liz Zwick (1994) Vingeslag over vandet: 50 år i branchen, ord & billeder. Valby: Borgens Forlag. Nespolo, Ugo (2019) ”Situazionismo”, Art e Dossier, No. 394. Nietzsche, Friedrich (2002) Samlade skrifter. Band 1: Tragedins födelse: Filosofin under grekernas tragiska tidsålder. Ågerup: Symposium. Rydberg, Viktor (1920) Faust och Fauststudier. Stockholm: Bonniers. Segergren, Göran (1999) ”Evigt ung rebell: Jörgen Nash på Drakabygget”, Folket i bild/kulturfront Nr 6. Sellem, Jean (2014) Sweden Today. Lund: Bakhåll. Sven-Olof (Andrzej Ploski) och Papou Y´ang (Jean Sellem) (1977) Lundius commedia dell´arte. Lund: Edition Sellem. Wilde, Oscar (1980) Dorian Grays Porträtt/ Spöket på Canterville. Stockholm: Forum. Winterson, Jeanette (2012) ”The Male Mystique of Henry Miller”, The New York Times, January 16.
“What a drag it is getting old”, recently the Rolling Stones intro to Mother's Little Helper has echoed within my skull. I constantly displace and forget things, several of them disappear without a trace. The feeling of a steadily advancing old age is a misery. I have for a week in all nooks and corners been searching for a book about Orpheus that I a few weeks ago bought in a newsstand. No matter how much I torture my brain, I cannot possibly remember where have I put it. I have always been scatterbrained and unfocused, though my loved ones assure me that things have gotten worse over the years. The more I miss that unread Orpheus book, the more I have come to think about the mythical singer. In the absence of the book, I turned to the sources and my memories.
The main source for the Orpheus myth is, of course, Ovid's Metamorphoses written during the first years AD. Ovidius had the original idea of linking Antiquity's wealth of stories, myths and fairy tales to a particular theme – transformations. How through a multitude of random acts and/or divine interventions human beings and demigods are changed into other lifeforms; animals, trees, flowers and I do not know what. All described with a rhythmic elegance and a well-maintained tempo. Easy and casual, seemingly unconstrained, though with a closer reflection quite subtle and profound, especially if the reader happens to notice the apparently insignificant details that quickly pass by, but which nevertheless indicate unexpected depths and astonishing insights.
You encounter no difficulties while following Ovid on his winding journey through Greek and Roman mythology. He is informed and well-read, effortlessly carrying and transmitting this knowledge. Almost everything Ovid tells us is told in the present tense. If he changes tense, it is because he has temporarily handed over the storytelling to someone else, a human or god. Sometimes he bursts out in direct speech or enters an inner thought or monologue. Everything shifts, everything moves – metamorphoses is a fitting term for this set of stories intricately intertwined to constitute an all-encompassing entity where each of them is more or less related to one another. Narrative perspectives shift and so do the stories. Unexpectedly, Ovidius can with ease leave one story to step into another, only to once again, almost imperceptibly, return to the previously beaten path.
Ovid seems to have been well trained in the art of oral storytelling. Several episodes are based on stories created in different contexts. For example, he leads us into rooms where ladies are spinning and weaving while facilitating their daily toil by telling each other strange tales. In this specific context the goddess Minerva and the master weaver Arachne sit by their looms, telling stories and creating images. Arachne tells us about human despair about the gods' omnipotence, while Minerva's imagery depicts the terrible retribution gods provide for human bragging and self-assertion. Their weaving turns into a hectic competition of life and death. Of course, the immortal goddess wins and in the manner of the almighty gods she rewards her rival in a nasty way – she turns Arachne into a spider.
The constant presence of nature runs like a red thread through Ovid's intricate tapestry of fairy tales and myths. His Greek/Roman world is constantly enlivened by the proximity of mature – forests, fields, streams, mountains, and sea. We are brought far away from our hectic contemporary existence, laden as it is by cement and asphalt. In the company of Ovid we stroll through the realms of trees and flowers; forests' shadow play, rippling, fresh brooks, birdsong and a mild, exhaust-free breeze.
Ovid's world can, despite the stifling presence of our civilization, still be experienced when during brief moments of tranquility and happiness we fin d ourslves surrounded by forests or are allowed to stroll across flowering fields, or when you, something that quite often might happen here in Italy is reminded of the presence of the past. I remember when I several years ago traveled at least once a week between Rome and Chieti, a town in the heart of Abruzzi, a region that in certain places still is quite wild. If I began the day in time I could during my journey treat myself with a break, for example in the city of Sulmona, the ancient Sulmo, where Ovid was born in 43 BC. and enjoy a cup of coffee and a cornetto by a marble table in front of Piazza di Garibaldi, overlooking a fountain, an aqueduct and high, often snow-covered mountains.
Depths opening up to Antiquity revealed themselves when I at Chieti's museum was confronted by a stone block on which someone at the same time as Ovid lived in Sulmo had carved a declaration of love, quoting a few lines from one of Ovid's poems. What if it had been, as one caretaker assured me, Ovid himself who had carved the words?
Well, now while I couldn't find my newly purchased book on Orpheus, I was content to read what Ovid told him about in his Metamorphoses. Several of his contemporaries must have written poems about this mythic musician, who already at that time for centuries had been considered as the epitome of all artists, divinely gifted and tragic. Five hundred years before Ovid, the Greek playwright Aeschylus had stated that “the magic of his music had captivated an entire world.” Perhaps Orpheus has never existed, but that does not prevent him from being as alive and present as Sherlock Holmes, Hamlet, or Don Quijote. The book-devouring Ovid was certainly not unaware that his compatriot, the thirty years older, but still contemporary and widely admired colleague Virgil in his lyrical tribute to agriculture, The Georgics, had told Orfeus´s story. Virgil told the tale in conjunction with a passionate description of bee-keeping, which may seem strange – I will return to that.
Enthralling and melodiously Virgil described how Orpheus's beautiful, young wife Eurydice had, during her husband's absence, fled across the meadows to escape a randy shepherd and was in the high grass deadly bitten by a viper. However, with his ravishing musical skill, her despairing husband succeeded to mellow Hades, ruler of The Realm of the Dead, and obtain his permission to bring Eurydice back to life, though under the condition that before they had reach ther syrface of the earth he was not allowed to turn around and look at her.
On their way through Hades´s terrifying gloom and gorges, Orpheus was able to restrain himself from looking back to ascertain whether or not his wife followed in his tracks. To keep himself and his beloved in good spirits during their eerie journey, Orpheus sang uninterruptedly, with all the dexterity he could muster:
Startled by the strain there came from the lowest realm of Erebus
the bodiless shadows and the phantoms of those bereft of light,
in multitude like the thousands of birds that hide amid the leaves
when the evening star, or a wintry shower drives them from the hills
– mothers and men, and bodies of high-souled heroes,
their life now done, boys and unwedded girls,
and sons placed on the pyre before their fathers´ eyes.
But as he stood on the threshold of the world of light, Orpheus was troubled by the deep silence behind him. Did Eurydice really follow him? Maybe Hades had lied to him? Maybe she had gone astray and lost herself in the chasms of Hell. It was difficult to walk since she had a snake-bitten heel.
He halted, and on the very verge of light,
un-mindful, alas, and vanquished in purpose,
on Eurydice, now regained, looked back!
In that instant all his toil was spilt like water,
the ruthless tyrant´s pact was broken,
and thrice a peal of thunder was heard
amid the pools of Avernus.
She cried: “What madness, Orpheus, what dreadful madness
has brought disaster alike upon you and me, pour soul?
See, again the cruel Fates call me back,
and sleep seals my swimming eyes.
Like several other young poets, Ovid competed with the admired, older master. However, he had a different mood than the courtly and probably gay Virgil. Ovid was a nimble spirit, not unlike his modern-day descendants who you may still encounter in Rome's streets, squares and fairgrounds. A casanova constantly in search of attractive women to pull the wool over their eyes through flattery, exaggerated courtesy and southern chutzpah.
In his Art of Love, Ovid offers numerous advice on how to impress young ladies. As an illustration of how Ovid obviously behaved in his youth, I offer some of his advice on how to find and impress attractive women. They are worthy of our interest not least for the lively insights Ovid provides of life in his contemporary Rome, though also as examples of his narrative style – filled with memorable snapshots and charming allusions to nature. He describes a wide variety of Roman places especially suitable for courting ladies – porticos, temples, squares, theaters, horse racing arenas, gladiator fights, all which are accurately named, as well as the time of day most appropriate for amorous encounters. Opportunities to court a lady is always there and it can be done anywhere in the world. You do not have to search beyond adjacent hunting grounds:
The hunter knows where to spread his nets for the stag
he knows what valleys hide the angry boar:
the fowler knows the woods; the fisherman
knows the waters where most fish spawn;
You too, who search for the essence of lasing love,
must be taught the places that the girls frequent.
I don´t demand you set sails, and search
or wear out some long road to discover them.
Sneaking around on streets and squares you can make your passes during parades and religious ceremonies, or just lurking around in a portico may result in a successful catch, though Ovid primarily recommends looking for female game at a theatre performance, a ballet, a horse race or a gory gladiator spectacle. While her senses are inflamed by what happens on the stage or arena an attractive lady also becomes more receptive to the courting of a more or less well-known and handsome young man.
But hunt for them, especially, at the tiered theatre:
that place is the most fruitful for your needs.
There you’ll find one to love, or one you can play with,
one to be with just once, or one you might wish to keep.
As ants return home often in long processions,
carrying their favourite food in their mouths,
or as the bees buzz through the flowers and thyme,
among their pastures and fragrant chosen meadows,
so our fashionable ladies crowd to the famous shows …
In great detail Ovid described how an enterprising young man could behave during the well-attended horse races that took place in the shadow of the Palatine, the Imperial Palace:
Don’t forget the races, those noble stallions:
the Circus holds room for a vast obliging crowd.
No need here for fingers to give secret messages,
nor a nod of the head to tell you she accepts:
You can sit by your lady: nothing’s forbidden,
press your thigh to hers, as you can do, all the time:
and it’s good the rows force you close, even if you don’t like it,
since the girl is touched through the rules of the place.
Now find your reason for friendly conversation,
and first of all engage in casual talk.
Make earnest enquiry whose those horses are:
and rush to back her favourite, whatever it is.
When the crowded procession of ivory gods goes by,
you clap fervently for Lady Venus:
if by chance a speck of dust falls in the girl’s lap,
as it may, let it be flicked away by your fingers:
and if there’s nothing, flick away the nothing:
let anything be a reason for you to serve her.
If her skirt is trailing too near the ground,
lift it, and raise it carefully from the dusty earth:
Straightaway, the prize for service, if she allows it,
is that your eyes catch a glimpse of her legs.
Don’t forget to look at who’s sitting behind you,
that he doesn’t press her sweet back with his knee.
Small things please light minds:
it’s very helpful to puff up her cushion with a dextrous touch.
And it’s good to raise a breeze with a light fan,
and set a hollow stool beneath her tender feet.
Obviously, a light-hearted writer like Ovid did not treat Orpheus's sad story in the same manner as his role model Virgil. Ovid's touch is more delicate, but at least just as imaginative and interesting. When Eurydice slides away from Orpheus, into the gloom of Hades, she is just as by Vergil stretching her hands towards him, but Ovid makes her mute. She has already been turned into a ghost.
Afraid she was no longer there, and eager to see her,
the lover turned his eyes. In an instant she dropped back,
and he, unhappy man, stretching out his arms to hold her and be held,
clutched at nothing but the receding air.
Dying a second time, now, there was no complaint to her husband
(what, then, could she complain of, except that she had been loved?).
The young woman Orpheus brought back with him from the Kingdom of Death was a completely different creature than the one who earlier on had died from him. She was already marked by death. As Rainer Maria Rilke wrote in his poem Orpheus. Eurydice. Hermes:
Self-absorbed. And her being-dead
was filling her like fullness.
For like a fruit all of sweetness and darkness
she too was full of her immense death,
which was so new she could not take it in.
Already she was not the fair-headed girl
at times resonant in the poet´s songs,
no more the wide coach´s scent and island,
and in this man´s ownership no longer.
Rilke's take on the Orpheus myth is elegant and more subdued than the dynamic energy characterizing Ovid's poetry. I assume Rilke's melancholy, and not least the title of his poem was inspired by a well-known Greek burial relief found in the National Museum of Naples. There Orpheus´s and Eurydice's eyes linger in a long farewell while Hermes, who is now going to lead Eurydice back into the dark abyss of death, gently touches Eurydice's hand as if to remind her that she must now be separated from her husband. The god's left hand grips nervously the rim of his tunic, as if to indicate that he is slightly embarrassed and not entirely comfortable with his heavy duty.
By Ovid, after losing his Eurydice Orpheus rushed back into the terrifying Hades. However, when he reached the banks of the stinking Styx, Charon, the ferryman, refused to bring him across to the other side. Orpheus's voice had burst by his sadness. Distressed, he sat down by the shoreline. There he remained for seven days, dirty and gloomy until hunger drove him back to the Realm of the Mortals.
During his old age, the Italian artist Giorgio de Chirico made several depictions of a lonely Orpheus. He presented him as a fashion doll made from a strange assortment of various components. It could be ancient building fragments or broken mechanical devices. The bard is generally seated on a stage while holding a harp. Since he is a showroom dummy its is doubtful whether he can sing or play. It is as if Chirico wanted to present an artist devoid of his original personality, now consisting solely of a compilation of fragments of works done by other artists, or perhaps his own, earlier works. As a matter ofmfact did the aging de Chirico frequently revisit the “metaphysical” themes of his youth, even copying paintings he hitherto had condemned as inferior to his later works.
The loneliness of Chirico's Orpheus might also be an allusion to the poet's name. The Greek ορφανό, orfano, can mean either ”orphan” or ”loner”. Any artist, especially writers and painters, is basically alone, living through his/her art that generally has been created in solitude. As Rainer Maria Rilke wrrote in his Orphic poems: ”To sing is to exist.”
Eventually, Orpheus regained his creativity and incomparable voice. Once more he could perform and bask in his devotees´ limitless appreciation. People and animals, even trees and stones, flocked around him and followed him devotedly, enchanted by his bewitching singing. However
Orpheus now would have nothing to do
with the love of women, perhaps of his fortune in love,
or he may have plighted his troth for ever. But scores of women
were burning to sleep with the bard and suffered the pain of rejection.
Orpheus even started the practice among the Thracian
tribes of turning for love to immature males and of plucking
the flowering of a boy´s brief spring before he has come to his manhood.
In one part of his Metamorphoses, Ovid gives voice to Orpheus and he then sings about homosexual love; Apollon's love for Cyparissus, Zeus´s for Ganymede and Phoebus´s for Hyacinthus. However, he also sings about Pygmalion's love for his own creation, about Myrrha's incestuous love for her father, how Hippomenes's urge to win a contest made him cheat and how he lost himself to an uncontrolled libido, and worst of all – his failure to thank Venus for providing him with the means to win and conquer. Finally, Orpheus sings about Venus's tragic love of the handsome hunter Adonis. All these stories/songs seem to be dealing with a one-sided, desire-driven and unstable love.
The love immortal gods expose mortals to is based on power abuse and time constraints. The objects of their desire will inevitably age and die, at the same time as they are forced to submit to the will and lust of gods. Such unfair and unequal relationships reflect Orpheus's desire for young boys. And if Orpehus's songs do not revolve around self-centered homosexuality, the amour he tells about is nevertheless egocentric and freed from empathy. Pygmalion's sexual passion targets a marble statue of his own creation. A love for a soulless object, a projection of his distorted libido. It is symptomatic that when the statue comes alive, the woman it becomes is not named, she is not provided with an existence of her own. Myrrah's incestuous relationship with her royal father is also an unequal, preposterous affair, it is not only unlawful but also a threat to her father's prestige and power. He tries to murder his daughter without blaming himself for his own illicit behaviour.
An incomparably great artist like Orfeus is rarely left alone. It must have been a spectacle when he appeared surrounded by a variety of birds, all kinds of animals and groupies that hung on every word he sang and said. Early on in Antiquity complaints were made about the power that great artists could exert over fanatical admirers, and while doing so it was often referred to Orpheus, who was not only a singer/poet but also a cult leader. A guru surrounded by admirers who seemed to have lost their ability of independent thinking.
In his drama Agamemnon, which Aicshylos wrote sometime during the 480s BC, Clytemnestra murders her husband Agamemnon as revenge for his sacrifice of their daughter and for bringing his beautiful prisoner of war, Cassandra, into their household. Clytemnestra is incited by her lover Aighistos who took power over Mycenae while his cousin fought in the Trojan War.
It is Aighistos who mentions Orpheus while mocking Agamemnon's companions for their blind obedience to their master, while they accuse Aighistos of cowardly avoiding his duty to fight the war under Agamemnon's command. He admonishes the leader of Agamemnon's soldiers:
Talk on – you´ll scream for every word my little Orhpeus
We´ll see if the world comes dancing to your song,
your absurd barking – snarl your breath away!
I´ll make you dance, I´ll bring you all to heel.
Like today, singing and music were extremely important to the Greeks of Antiquity and always present, something that is apparent already on a vase from Hagia Triada in Crete, dated to 1500 BC. It depicts how men returning from the harvest are singing at the top of their lungs.
Ancient dramas were to a large extent sung and their performance demanded much of their interpreters, some of whom, like present-day rock artists, could attract admirers who assumed that anything they said on or off the stage was imbued with wisdom. Orpheus was not only an exalted artist, but he was also a cult leader, an ordained priest both for the song god Apollon, who was alleged to be his father and the multi-faceted, enigmatical Dionysus. Something that the insightful Friedrich Nietzsche wrote about in his The Birth of Tragedy where he described art as a field of tension between the intellectual clarity of Apollon and the dark passion of Dionysos.
A point of view that made me think of Rolling Stone's Mother's Little Helper, who continues to echo in my skull. I recently read what the Italian poet Roberto Musappi wrote about England´s two most famous rock bands:
While listening to the Rolling Stones I experience an intoxicating Dionysian deference contrasting with the quiet, Apollonian elegance of the Beatles. To me this compelling dichotomy is proof of the inherent dynamics of great art, of the creative opposites of the soul.
We get a glimpse of the great artist on a pottery fragment from the time around 450 BC. Unfortunately, it disappeared without a trace more than a hundred years ago. “Hail Orpheus” was written under a black-figure vase painting depicting how the great singer gently had taken hold of his full-length chiton, while with his other hand carried a large zither as he stepped onto a dais.
It was from such an elevated position that Orpheus preached his religion. He was often referred to as the founder of Ὀρφικά, Orphism, a set of religious beliefs and practices connected with the afterlife, i.e. our death and resurrection. If a believer passed through the cleansing process of the Orphic Mysteries and adhered to strict rules s/he could be transformed into a perfected being and thus be saved from the shadowy realms of the Underworld and found worthy to be elevated to the Kingdom of Bliss, far beyond time and space. However, in order to enjoy such a beatitude, you must have lived a righteous and ascetic life, preferably avoid eating meat, preserve your chastity and immerse yourself in a number of sacred writings, several of which were said to have been written by Orpheus. In Euripide's drama Hippolytos, the burly heroic king Theseus is irritated by the manners of his ascetic and, according to him, far too pious and thus sanctimonious son Hippolytos:
Oh yes, preen yourself now,
play the exhibitionist with that vegetable diet of yours
take Orpheus for your master and
join him in the frenzied dance
Bow down before all his worthless scribblings –
for you are caught!
I charge all men to shun people like this;
they try to catch your soul with catchy words
and what they are plotting is far from honourable.
The Orphics believed in a myth declaring that Dionysos would once again be born into this world as a sacred child who eventually would save the world, something Orpheus proclaimed in song and poetry. Art would lift us above the hustle and bustle of everyday life. Even if song and music are nothing but a weak echo of The Music of the Sphere, the innermost order of the Universe, they are nevertheless the noblest expression of the human intellect and a sign that we are in reality a part of Cosmos.
However, the last time Dionysus was incarnated as a child he was torn apart and eaten by the Titans, who were punished for their deeds by being burned to ashes by Allfather Zeus´s thunderbolts. From the Titans´ ashes, which also contained the remains of The Dionysos Child, Zeus created the humans, who thus contain both Dionysian divinity and evil Titanic matter. The path towards salvation involves the submission of matter, to fight gluttony and carnal desire and strive to lead a spiritual life, i.e. to indulge in the arts, religion, music, and asceticism. The body is the tomb of the soul. Salvation is achieved only if you are capable of freeing yourself from imprisonment in the matter and allow your soul to be raised towards the spheres of eternal bliss. Those who have not been able to purify themselves through asceticism and mysterious, secret rites will never experience the heavenly euphoria that awaits the ”pure of heart” after death. Those who are unable to discipline themselves ”will remain in the dirt.”
One who believed in this was the Swedish alcoholic, opium-addicted, ugly and brilliant poet Erik Johan Stagnelius, who in 1823, alone and poor, died in Stockholm only 29 years old. He wrote ”evil and troublesome is the time I live in, but far worse is my life within it” and was probably right about that. However, in my opinion, he was one of Sweden's greatest poets. Almost thirty years ago, I worked with my friend Leif Magnusson on a screenplay about Stagnelius´s life. I got well paid for the job, but it never became a movie. However, I remain grateful for this opportunity to quite thoroughly acquaint myself with Stagnelius's captivating work – it has strength, presence and an unusually rhythmic, beautiful language.
While I was writing about Stagnelius, I worked as a teacher and experienced one of the few triumphs in my professional life. Among my ”workshop students” was an odd young man who by my colleagues, through his upbeat attitude, difficult home conditions and unusually poor study results, was regarded as a hopeless case. Some were even afraid of him. He was a so-called ”black rocker”. He had a mohawk, was constantly dressed in worn, black clothes, exposed iniquitous tattoos and his face was pierced in various places; eybrows, nose, cheeks, tongue. Nevertheless, I soon discovered that he wrote and played his own songs and in spite of his looks and foul language had a gentle soul.
I asked him if he possibly had any home made recordings of his music. He lit up and one day brought with him some tapes to school, which I played in class. His texts and even his music were surprisingly good. When I boldly began to read some Stagnelius poems for those marginalized, generally despised and feared boys with ”special needs”, there was no girl among them, most of them to did to my great surprise listen to me. The black rocker was particularily enthusiastic. Some weeks later he showed up singing his own interpretation to guitar accompaniment of:
Make haste Decomposition, beloved bride,
to make our solitary bed!
Dismissed by the World, dismissed by God,
you are my only hope.
Rapidly, adorn our chamber
– upon the black-clad bier
the wailing lover his nest will find.
Of course, my clumsy translation does not give any justice to Stagnelius´s rhythmic masterpiece. ”Damn strong bounce and cursed lingo in that guy. Right? He´s awesome,” the black-clad youngster told me. Of course, he was right. I imagined getting a glimpse of the unfortunate Stagnelius in that awkward and strangely talented boy. As is the case with so many of my former pupils, he has long since disappeared from my life and I wonder what became of him. Maybe he ended up in misery, like the wretched Stagnelius.
Ovid´s Metamorphoses were Stagnelius's favorite reading and he wrote an eloquent, but probably unplayable, verse drama about an Orpheus who appeared to reflect Stagnelius's unhappy existence as an ugly and unhealthy being, who despite of his woeful countenance was one of Sweden's most gifted poets of all times, though nevertheless discouraged by most members of contemporary literary establishment. In The Bacchants, Stagnelius gave full scope to his dreams of success and a blissful existence beyond death. Orpheus is a brilliant singer, though far from being pompous and self-centred. He is a gentle and kind man who preaches love and tolerance. However, like Stagnelius, he is also tormented by the cruelty and forlornness of the life he leads, only in poetry and dreams does Orfeus find any relief from all the misery that afflicts him:
A shadow is Earth, a ghost the sun,
a dark, rotten vapor, a Stygian fog.
Smoke is what wakeful people see.
Only while sleeping, only then, the body´s chains are losened.
Truth! You enlightens us with stupor´s gentle touch.
It is by your light
we find solace within a dazzling world.
Oh, if I still was dreaming!
Then I saw, I knew much more than now.
Orpheus assures us that we all worship the same god. He believes that reason and tolerance lead to reconciliation. Because of such a conviction he attends a sacrificial feast in honor of Dionysus, staged by the fanatical Bacchants. Their Dionysus is The Only, Almighty God and if anyone dares to be of a different opinion and, worse still, heralds this view all over the world, s/he ought to be killed before even more unbelievers are turned into open deniers of God. By presenting his songs of love and tolerance to such fanatics and together with them sacrifice to Dionysus, Orpheus imagined he would be able to bridge the gap between the bigotry of Dionysos´s cultists´ and his own Orphic teaching about elevated broad-mindedness.
During the sacrificial ceremony, the leader of the Bacchants is stung in the face by a gadfly coming from the lower depths of the Underworld. Furious from being interrupted during her sacred tribute to The One and Only God, she pours her rage at the innocent Orpheus, who is assisting her during the sacrifice. Her fury infects the entire female congregation and, as if they were one, single crazed beast, their hearts are filled to the brim of hatred against the mild and gentle Orfeus. In a paroxysm of collective violence and rage, they lynch him and tear his body to pieces. But as the enlightened mystic he is, death becomes an act of liberation for Orpheus:
Raptured I am.
Eons of endless joy open up,
as if seen by human eyes; heavens, sea.
High above earth my praise is sung,
as long as the Lyre twinkles and glows
while the heavenly swan swims across the Milky Way
star-studded wings spread in the quiet night.
Oh, my children! Not blood from a hundred sacrificial bulls,
magic spells and mysteries, pools of sanctified gore,
will wash away the soul´s contagion. Obedience only to the one,
who opens and closes the copper gate of Orcus,
staff-carrying Hermes, winged son of Maia.
Stagnelius paid tribute to Hermes, the god who not only accompanied the deceased through the Gates of Death, but who furthermore had invented the lyre, symbol of the divine, life-giving power of music.
However, the question remains if Orphism, as the influential Swedish mythologist Martin P:n. Nilsson assumed, was a kind of reformation within the Dionysian revival movement that in the 500s BC shook the Greek world. If that had been the case, Stagnelius's was quite right in making his Orpheus into a prophet who tried to transform the wild Dionysos cult into a more tranquil, meditatively oriented view of life.
The original Dionysos cult was apparently an ecstatic movement that captured especially women, who in a passionate state of intoxication triggered by wine and obsession devoted themselves to peculiar rituals, which among other things induced them out into a ferocious state of mind fuelled by sacred dancing and singing apparently culminating in a frenzy that enabled them to tear apart and devour sacrificial animals. In his play The Bacchae Euripides's introduced Dionysus in human shape in which he seduced and eventually punished a king who persecuted Dionysian devotees. Orpehus did not appear in The Bacchae, though he has much in common with the Dionysus presented in this drama, among other things Orpheus was a stranger in the country, became torn to pieces and reborn, as well as he just like Dionysys had retrieved a deceased åerson from The Realm of the Dead. Actually, Orpheus did not entirely succeed in doing this, but Dionysus brought his dead mother Semele back to life and furhermore made her a goddess.
Researchers have traced Orpheus and Dionysus to Thrace. The Thracians, who inhabited the eastern Balkans except Greece, were by the Greeks considered to be an enigmatic people. They spoke another language and had strange customs, but they were eventually colonized by the Greeks and Thrace became part of Greece, although its inhabitants were still considered to be a kind of strangers; blonde, tall, rustic and bloodthirsty. Nevertheless, there was a mutual influence between Thracians and Greeks. The latter inherited many traits from Thracian culture, not least from their religion.
The Romans also regarded Thracians and their distinctive culture as an alien, exotic and not the least dynamic element within the rich and mixed culture that came to be called Hellenism. Famous Thracians were for example the gladiator Spartacus, who led a bloody and almost successful rebellion against the Roman central power and the burly, military emperor Maximinus Thrax, who daily devoured twenty kilos of pork and drank eighteen bottles of wine. He could impress his surroundings by knocking out the teeth of a horse with his bare knuckles. When something went against his will Thrax roared like an animal and thumped his head on the walls.
Dionysus – the god of wine, wine harvesting and drunkenness, not only in the sense of alcohol intoxication but also the elation, or rather obsession, caused by dance, music, drama and religion. He was often referred to as the ”twice-born” and was first thought to have been generated through the union of the heavenly god Zeus with the Underworld's mistress Persephone, daughter of the fertility godess Demeter. Zeus intended to make Dionysus his heir, but his constantly jealous sister and wife Hera made sure that Zeus's enemies, the Titans, kindnapped the child, cut him into pieces and ate him. Zeus annihilated these cannibals with his lightning, after managing to grab a piece of his son's heart.
Zeus then began a love story with the princess of Thebe, Semele, and offered her a drink in which he had dissolved the fragment of Dionysos's heart. The ever-intriguing Hera showed up at Semele´s place, transformed into her father's old wet-nurse and managed to become a confidant of the beautiful but naive princess. Semele wondered if her strange lover could really be Zeus and the disguised Hera assured her that this was really the case and that if the god really loved her – he was after Allfather Zeus, ruler of the entire universe – he could prove his real nature and boundless might by changing into what he truly was. However, to do so he had to be defeated by female cunning. Hera explained to Semele that if she wanted Zeus to reveal his true nature she could ask him to give her whatever she wanted after swearing a binding oath on the River Styx.
After he had done so Semele asked Zeus, to his great shock and astonishment to expose himself in his true form. Hera knew that if an ordinary person happened to catch a glimpse of the Lord of the Universe in such a capacity, she would die. Zeus could not deny Semele her request and when he appeared in all his crushing might, Semele was burned to death. However, Dionyso's fetus was miraculously saved from the extibction and Zeus sewed it into his right thigh from which Dionysus was born after the time it should have taken for a child to have been fully developed within its mother's womb.
The two births of Dionysus became a symbol of the universe's eternal existence and uninterrupted renewal. Out of death new life is created and this became the central message of the Orphic mysteries in which participants became possessed by the god of spiritual intoxication and thus lost their earthly ego, becoming part of the deity so they eventually would de able to vanquish death and become uinted with the Universe. A catharsis, purification, which was also said to be promoted by the plays performed in Athens in honor of Dionysus. Thus, the unbridled Trachian wilderness was tamed and integrated with Athenian logic and clarity. Cleavage was transformed into unity.
To cut someone/something into pieces and afterward unite them into something new is a recurring theme within several religions. For example, in Norse mythology the god Odin and his brothers Vile and Ve slaughtered and cut up the giant Ymer and created the world out of his body parts; his blood became water, bones were turned into mountains, hair became trees, the skull heaven, the brain clouds, and the giant´s eyes became the sun and the moon.
For the Greeks, everything north of their realm, including Thrace, was the terrain of the barbarians and they were all considered to be uncivilized hordes with similar customs. One of the gods of the Thracians, Zagreus, was like Ymer slaughtered and severed, but also resurrected and turned into a fertility god. The wild, unrestrained features of the Thracian religion was by the Irish classist Eric Robertson Dodds considered to having had a dynamic impact on ancient Greek religion. Dodds linked Thracian beliefs to the extensive shamanistic tradition common in Siberian, Nordic and North American religions.
According to Dodds are myths surrounding Dionysus and his apostle Orpheus suggesting that the latter might be considered as a shaman. In a compelling manner, Dodds lists the characteristics of Orpheus and compares them with Siberian shamanistic traditions.
He combines the professions of poet, magician, religious teacher, and the oracle-giver. Like certain legendary shamans in Siberia he can by his music summon birds and beasts to listen to him. Like shamans everwhere, he pays a visit to the underworld, and his motive is very common among shamans – to recover a stolen soul. Finally his magical self lives on as a singing head, which continues to give oracles for many years after his dead.
In Norse mythology a group of nature gods called Vanir decapitated Mimir, the main provider of poetry and wisdom, and sent his head to another group of gods, the Æsir, whose leader Odin eventually became king of all gods. Odin took Mimir´s head, anointed it with herbs preventing it from rotting and then chanted magic songs over it so it became able to talk to him and advise him about things and acts hidden from all other creatures.
Dodds points to further peculiarities that Orpheus seems to have in common with shamans, such as transvestism. Both Odin and Dionysos occasionally appear in women's clothing and so did Orpheus, for example on the pottery shard which presented him wearing a female chiton. A suggestive portrayal of a modern shaman, who also is a transvestite, can be found in Mikael Niemi's novel Popular Music from Vittula, a mixture of a childhood memories and magical realism from northern Sweden, where one of the most enigmatical characters is a cross-dressing hobo and magician called Ryssi-Jussi.
A central motive among the Orphics is the separation of body and soul. A shaman can release his soul from the body's shell and travel outside of it. Souls of shamans were believed to be capable of entering into the bodies of other humans, and even animals. Furthermore, it was assumed that the soul of a deceased shaman could take up residence inside the body of a successor. Several Orphics considered the body to be "the grave and abode of the soul," some assumed it was vicious guardian of the soul, constantly trying to drag it down into earthly dirt and pollution, others regarded the body as kind of temple for the soul, a receptacle that had to be nurtured and preserved - ”a healthy soul in a healthy body.”
I assume the cult of Dionysus and his servant Orpheus like most other religious beliefs is syncretistic and a conglomerate of influences from several cultures, finding their roots elsewhere than in northern areas. Greek and Roman writers generally considered Dionysus as an immigrant, a newcomer. They based their belief on the fact that this god and his servants mainly are portrayed as strangers and that Dionysus is hardly mentioned in Homer's Iliad. However, archaeological finds appear to prove the opposite – namely that Dionysus is one of Greece's oldest gods. In Pylos a town in the ancient kingdom of Mycenae, clay tablets have been found dating back to 1 300 BC with engravings written in the Linear B alphabet. These are fragments of sacrificial gifts, urns that contained wine consecrated to the god Diwonusujo. Similar evidence of a contemporary Dionysus cult has been excavated in Khania and Knossos on the island of Crete, often in the form of pots with inscriptions indicating that they had contained honey sacrificed to Zeus and Dionysus.
The researcher and historian Herodotus wrote in the 450s BC that ”what we call Orphic and Dionysian actually comes from Egypt” and this has made several historians linking the myths of Orpheus and Dionysos – with their cut-up, reassembled and resurrected bodies – with Egyptian notions related to mummies and the Osirian myths. Several hundred years after Herodotus, the Greek writer Diodorus Siculus (90 - 39 BC) claimed that Dionysus and Osiris were simply the same god. That Dionysos like Osiris was slaughtered dismembered, restored, embalmed and resurrected as a new creature more powerful than before, capable of restoring dead bodies to life and reshape people's minds. Diodoros compared Dionysos´s ritual detah to the crushing, pressing and fermenting of grapes that have to be done in to produce reinvigorating and mind-changing wine.
Osiris was a god of fertility who, according to the myth, was killed by his brother Set, who cut up the body into at least thirteen parts, which he then spread throughout Egypt. Osiris's wife Isis and her sister Nephthys, managed after years of searching to locate all the body parts and put them back together. The gods Anubis and Thot embalmed the body, thus creating the first mummy. They even managed to bring it back to life so Isis could be made pregnant by the revived Osiris and eventually give birth to their son Horus, who finally avenged his father's death. When Osiris died again, he became ruler of Duat, the Realm of the Dead, where he nurtures the earth and determines whose souls are worthy to be bestowed eternal life. The mummy was, like the body was for the Orphics, the grave and abode of the soul, but unlike the Greeks, ancient Egyptians apparently believed that the body must be preserved and nurtured even after death, though the soul was free to enter Duat and even revisit its tomb.
Like Osiris and Dionysus, Orpheus was also dismembered. His remains disappeared, except for the head. It was believed that Orpheus's soul continued to live through his songs and music. The myth states that several of Dionysos's female followers, the Bacchae or Maenads, considered themselves to have been betrayed either by Orpheus newfound homosexuality, or the fact that he still paid hommage to his love for Eurydice, something that makes me think of the Beatlemania of the sixties when young, fanatical followers of the Beatles became disappointed and furious when one of the Beatles got married.
In any case, Orpheus was attacked by enraged Bacchae who tore him to pieces. His scattered body parts and the head remained on the beach until the tide came and ocean currents brought his head, resting on his zither, to the island of Lesbos.
There the head was taken care of by one of the women who belonged to a mystery cult that later came to be headed by the great female poet Sappho, who lived by the end of the 6th century BC The presence of Orpheus's head was considered to be one reason to why Lesbos became the home of two of Antiquity's most admired poets - Alakaios and Sappho, as well as the great philosopher Epicurus.
After all these messy trips around the multi-faceted Orpheus, it might be appropriate to conclude with a simple answer to the question ”Why did Orpheus turn around when he was so close to his destination and thus sent Eurydice back to Death?” In my opinion, the best answer is provided by the Sicilian author Gesualdo Bufalino in his short story Eurydice's Homecoming.
Bufalino tells us how Eurydice sits alone and frozen on the banks of Styx. After Orpheus's fatal glance back she has on her injured foot limped back along the dark ravine that ends by the black river, which she must cross to return to her friend Proserpina's gloomy palace. More surprised and shocked than grief-struck, Eurydice thinks back on her life together with her admired and beloved Orpheus.
The wedding party had been an unmitigated disaster, even if the god of marriage, Hymen himself, had come from afar to marry Orpheus and Eurydice. The ceremonial wedding torch could not be lit, it hissed and sparkled without catching fire, an ominous sign that obscured the entire party. The general gloom could not even be dispersed by the exquisite food and wine, not even Orpheus´s incomparably beautiful singing could lighten up the boredom and frustration.
When everyday life began, Eurydike could not chase away her disenchantment over the Poet´s lack of interest for anything other than his own art. He tormented his young wife by leaving her alone for long periods of time, which she devoted to boring housekeeping, or by listlessly sitting by the loom. This while Orpheus basked in the brilliance of his celebrity and all the admiration his love songs for Eurydice triggered amidst an admiring audience.
Over time, Eurydike became increasingly annoyed at the Poet's, she always called him that, self-centered behaviour. The young couple's neighbour, a shepherd, and beekeeper by the name of Aristaios, who like Orpheus was one of Apollon´s several sons, began during the absence of the Poet to lust after his beautiful and forsaken wife. More out of boredom than seriously, Eurydice almost unconsciously encouraged her neighbour's cautious courtesy. However, one day Aristaios suppressed horniness made him lose self-control and he chased Eurydike out across a field where she trampled on a viper that gave her a deadly bite in the heel.
While Orpheus celebrated further triumphs with touching elegies about his deceased wife, the gods punished Aristaios by killing all his bees. In despair, the inconsolable Aristaios sought any means to appease the wrath of the gods. The only one who knew what to do was the sea god Proteus, who knew the answer to many a riddle but would not reveal his knowledge unless you took a firm hold on him and kept it. This was virtually impossible since Proteus could transform himself into anything. However, an increasingly frustrated Aristaios managed to hold on to the furiously shep shifting divinity, transforming into an eel, a scorpion, a whirlwind, a flame, rushing water. In the end, Proteus gave up and declared that the gods would be pleased if Aristaios sacrificed four bulls and four heifers on Eurydice's grave. After Aristaios had done what Proteus had advised him to do swarms of bees arose from the rotting carcasses of the sacrificial animals. This miracle was the reason to why the beekeeping-interested Virgil in his agricultural poem The Georgics told the story about Orpheus and Eurydice and thus inspired the younger Ovid to recount it in his Metamorphoses.
Well, let us return to Eurydice's thoughts while she sat on the shore of Styx. She had been deeply moved when her beloved Poet made his risky journey down to Hades´s palace becoming the first mortal ever to succeed in saving someone from Death. And he succeeded through his almost incredible effort to soften the hardened heart of the tenebrous Ruler of Death. Orpheus's triumph arose from the fact that in his song he cunningly hinted at Hades´s great love, which long ago had forced him up to Earth´s surface to steal away the woman he desired most of all and then made mistress over his kingdom.
Nevertheless ... after all that trouble, after such a great victory – why did Orfeus turn around and thus spoiled his entire enterprise? Then – quite suddenly there in the darkness, abandonment, and gloom, Euridyce´s melancholy eased. Not because her situation had improved, but because she finally understood everything. Why Orpheus had turned to look at her and thus condemned her to death once more. It was not for her sake. It was not out of love for her that he did what he did. It was for his own fame he acted as he did.
His life with Eurydice had not at all become as he had expected it to be. Instead, she had become a weight around his neck, a source for irritation and bad conscience. The constant thought of her, her constant demand for his presence had left a fly in the ointment, become a hindrance for the enjoyment of his fame. Now Orpheus was free again! And he had become unexampled, entirely unique – truly the greatest singer of them all. No one could top what he had achieved. Armed with nothing more than song and poetry he had mastered the monsters and damned souls of the Underworld. He had defeated Death himself! Now Orfeus no longer needed any Eurydice. The whole earth lay before his feet. With an euphoric feeling of total liberation and triumph, Orpheus left the murky Hades behind and stepped out into the warm sunshine, singing extraordinary, almost supernaturally brilliant tributes to his lost Eurydice.
Strangely enough, neither Orfeus nor Eurydice suffered any transformation in Ovid's Metamorphoses. It might have been close at hand to assume that Orpheus was turned into a blackbird, or a nightingale, but the one who was transformed into such a bird was Philomela, who was punished for assisting her sister when she murdered her son, cooked him and served him as an exquisite dish to her hated husband Tereus. After her death, Philomela metamorphosed into a bird. She became the queen of all nightingales. It was presumably meant to be an irony since a female nightingale cannot sing.
While writing about Orpheus, a phrase from the Swedish poet Hjalmar Gullberg keeps popping up in my brain: ”The greatest singer ever heard on earth”. I remember my friend and colleague Berndt Dagerklint, who died a couple of years ago. He was a great fan of Hjalmar Gullberg's poetry and knew several of his poems by heart. He used to reassure me that Gullberg´s poem To a Nightingale in Malmö is the most beautiful poem ever written about illness, aging and death. Since I started this essay by complaining about my advancing old age it could be appropriate to end it with a few lines from that poem, though I hesitate to do so since my clumsy translation cannot render the exquisite rhythm and rhyming of Gullberg´s poetry:
In the hospital´s park, the moon´s lantern gleams tonight
shining softly through the fabric of my curtain,
and all those locked in grief, sadness and fright
listen to a sacred song; bold, strong and certain.
The greatest singer ever heard on earth
brings me rest with his exciting tale.
I hear music, free from words and dearth
Sing nightingale, sing my hometown´s nightingale.
Aischylos (1977) The Orestia translated by Robert Fagles. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Classics. Bufalino, Gesualdo (1994) The Keeper of Ruins. London: Harvill/Harper Collins. Dodds, E. R. (1973) The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: University of California Press. Euripides (2003) Medea and Other Plays Translated by John Davie. London: Penguin Classics. Euripides (2006) The Baccahe and Other Plays Translated by John Davie. London: Penguin Classics. Isler-Kérenyi, Cornelia (2006) Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An Understanding Through Images. Leyden: Brill. Musappi, Roberto (ed.) (2019) Orfeo: La nascita della poesia. Milano: Mondadori. Niemi, Mikael (2004) Popular Music from Vittula. New York: Seven Stories Press. Ovid (1983) The Erotic Poems Translated by Peter Green. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Classics. Ovid (2004) Metamorphoses: A New Verse Translation by David Raeburn. London: Penguin Classics. Rilke, Rainer Maria (2011) Selected Poems with Parallel German Text. New Translations by Susan Ranson and Marielle Sutherland. Oxford: Oxford World´s Classics. Virgil (1999) Eclogues. Georgics. Eenid: Books 1-6 Translated by H. Rushton Fairclough. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
“What a drag it is getting old”, Rolling Stones intro till Mother´s Little Helper har under de senaste dagarna ekat i skallen på mig. Ständigt förlägger jag saker och ting, flera av dem försvinner spårlöst. Känslan av en ständigt ökande ålderdom är ett elände. Jag har under en veckas tid i alla hörn och skrymslen sökt efter en bok om Orfeus som jag för några veckor sedan köpte i en tidningskiosk. Hur mycket jag än bryr min hjärna kan jag omöjligt minnas var jag lagt den. Jag alltid varit tankspridd och ofokuserad, men min omgivning påpekar att det blivit värre med åren. Ju mer jag saknar den där olästa orfeusboken desto mer har jag kommit att fundera kring den mytiske sångaren. I avsaknad av boken har jag vänt mig till källorna och mina minnen.
Den främsta källan till myten om Orfeus är givetvis Ovidius Metamorforser skrivna under de första åren e.Kr. Ovidius fick den originella idén att sammanlänka Antikens överdåd av historier, myter och sagor kring ett speciellt tema – förvandlingar. Hur människor och halvgudar genom en mängd slumpvisa handlingar och/eller gudomligt ingripande förvandlas till allt möjligt – djur, träd, blommor och jag vet inte vad. Allt beskrivet med en rytmisk elegans och ett väl bibehållit tempo. Lätt och ledigt, till synes okonstlat, men vid närmare eftertanke subtilt och djupsinnigt, speciellt om läsaren lägger märke till en mängd uppenbarligen obetydliga detaljer som snabbt glimmar förbi, men som ofta antyder oanade djup och förbluffande insikter.
Läsaren möter inga svårigheter under Ovidius vindlande färd genom grekisk och romersk mytologi. Han är välinformerad och beläst, samtidigt som han med oansträngd lätthet bär sin vidlyftiga kunskap. Nästan allt Ovidius berättar sker i presens. Om han någon gång skiftar tempus beror det på att han tillfälligtvis har överlämnat berättandet till någon annan, en människa eller en gud. Ibland brister han ut i direkt tilltal, eller stiger in en tanke eller inre monolog. Allt skiftar, allt rör sig – metamorfoser är en passande beteckning på denna mängd av berättelser som intrikat flätas samman till en allomfattande enhet inom vilken de är mer eller mindre relaterade till varandra. Berättarpespektiven skiftar och så gör historierna. Oväntat kan Ovidius lämna en påbörjad berättelse och med lätthet stiga in i en annan, enbart för att återigen, nästan omärkligt, återvända från sitt stickspår.
Ovidius tycks ha blivit ordentligt skolad i det muntliga berättandets konst. Flera episoder bygger på berättelser som skapats inom olika sammanhang. Exempelvis leder han oss in bland spinnerskor och väverskor som under sitt dagliga värv underlättar arbetet genom att berätta märkliga historier för varandra. Inom ramen för en sådan miljön förtäljer Ovidius hur gudinnan Minerva och mästerväverskan Arachne sitter vid sina vävstolar och skapar bilder, som hos Arachne berättar om människors förtvivlade uppror mot gudarnas allmakt, alltmedan Minervas bildväverier återger gudarnas fruktansvärda vedergällning för människors självhävdelse. Vävandet blir till en hektisk tävling på liv och död. Givetvis segrar den odödliga gudinnan och på gudars vis lönar hon sin medtävlare på ett otäckt vis – Arachne förvandlas till en spindel.
Genom Ovidius intrikata väv av sagor och myter löper som en röd tråd naturens ständiga närvaro. Hans grekisk/romerska värld besjälas av naturens – skogarnas, fältens, bäckarnas, bergens och havets – närhet, fjärran från vår hektiska samtids fordonsbelamrade vardag och cement/asfaltsbetäckta omgivningar. I sällskap med Ovidius vandrar vi genom trädens och blommornas riken; skogarnas skiftande skuggspel, friska källsprångs porlande, fåglars sång och ljumma, avgasfria sommarfläktar.
Ovidius värld kan trots vår civilisations kvävande närvaro fortfarande upplevas då vi under stunder av ro och lycka låter oss omslutas av skogar eller vandrar över blommande fält, eller som här i Italien blir påminda om gångna tiders närvaro. Minns då jag för flera år sedan minst en gång i veckan färdades mellan Rom och staden Chieti, i hjärtat av det fortfarande på sina ställen vilda Abruzzi. Om jag börjat dagen i god tid kunde jag under färden unna mig ett uppehåll, exempelvis i staden Sulmona, Antikens Sulmo, där Ovidius föddes år 43 f.Kr. För att där njuta en kopp kaffe och en cornetto vid ett marmorbord framför stadens Piazza di Garibaldi med utsikt mot en fontän, en akvedukt och höga, ofta snötäckta berg.
Bråddjup ner mot en levande Antik öppnade sig då jag på Chietis museum konfronterades med ett stenblock på vilket någon samtidiga med Ovidius i Sulmo hade ristat in en kärleksförklaring, några rader från en av Ovidius dikter. Tänk om det varit, som vaktmästeren försäkrade mig, Ovidius själv som ristat in orden?
Nåväl, när jag nu omöjligt kunde finna min nyinköpta bok om Orfeus fick jag nöja mig med att läsa vad Ovidius berättat om honom i sina Metamorfoser. Säkerligen fanns det i Ovidius samtid en mängd dikter som tillägnats denne sångare om vilken pjäsförfattaren Aischylos femhundra år tidigare hade konstaterat att “hans toners trollmakt hade fängslat en hel värld”. Kanske har denne Orfeus aldrig exiterat, men det hindrar inte att han är lika levande och närvarnade som Sherlock Holmes, Hamlet eller Don Quijote. Den bokslukande Ovidius var säkerligen inte ovetande om att hans uppburne, trettio år äldre, men likväl samtida författarkollega Vergilius hade berättat om Orfeus i sin hyllningsdikt till jordbruket, Georgica. Det skedde i samband med en lyrisk beskrivning av biskötsel, något som kan tyckas märkligt – jag återkommer till det.
Gripande hade Vergilius skildrat hur Orfeus undersköna och unga hustru Eurydike under sin makes frånvaro hade flytt över ängarna för att undkomma en pilsk fåraherde och då blivit dödligt stungen av en huggorm. Hennes förtvivlade make lyckades dock med sin bedårande skönsång beveka Hades bistre härskare och få tillåtelse att föra med sig Eurydike tillbaka till jordelivet, dock under villkoret att han innan de kommit upp ur Underjorden inte vände sig om för att betrakta henne.
På deras väg genom Hades skräckinjagande mörker och avgrundsvrål lyckades Orfeus avhålla sig från att konstatera om hustrun följde i hans spår, eller ej. För att hålla sig och sin älskade vid gott mod under den kusliga färden sjöng han oavbrutet, med allt det mästerskap han kunde uppbåda:
han sjöng; och gripna, ur djupet av Erebos mörker
strömmade vålnader till av dem som ej längre leva,
tätt, som fåglar i tusental söka lä under löven
när det mörknar till kväll, eller markerna piskas av höstregn.
Men, då han stod på tröskeln till ljusets värld oroades Orfeus av den djupa tystnaden bakom sig. Följde Eurydike honom verkligen? Kanske hade Hades ljugit för honom? Kanske hade hon hamnat på villovägar, svårt som hon hade att med sin ormsstungna häl följa sin make?
Då av sin kärlek förledd, han för ett ögonblick allt förgäter –
Ack, så oförlåtligt! Om dödens härskare blott förstod att förlåta!
Han ser sig tillbaka – då dundrar det ur djupen och
Eurydike svinner hän, stilla klagande: … jag kallas tillbaka
obvekligt; nu slöjas min blick och drunknar, jag somnar …
Käre farväl! Jag rycks bort i en svepning av natt utan morgon,
domnande sträckas mot dig, som jag ej längre når, mina händer …
Som många andra unga poeter ville Ovidius ta upp tävlan med den beundrade, äldre mästaren. Men, han var av ett helt annat lynne än den vörnadsvärde och antagligen homosexuelle Vergilius. Ovidius var en kvicktänkt spjuver, inte olik sina nutida ättlingar som du fortfarande kan stöta på bland Roms gator och torg. En casanova ständigt på jakt efter attraktiva kvinnor, vilka han medelst smicker, överdriven artighet och sydländsk esprit kunde slå blå dunster i ögonen på.
I sin Kärlekens konst (Ars Amatoria), gav Ovidius en mängd råd för hur du kan imponera på unga damer. Som illustration till hur Ovidius uppenbarligen agerade i sin ungdom återger jag ett par av hans råd om hur du lättast finner och imponerar på attraktiva kvinnor. De är värda att citeras inte minst för de livliga inblickar Ovidius ger i sin samtids Rom, men även som exempel på hans berättarkonst – fylld med minnesvärda ögonblicksbilder och roande allusioner till naturen. Han beskriver en mängd platser i Rom där det var speciellt enkelt att kurtisera damer – tempel, portiker, torg, teatrar, hästkapplöpningsarenor, gladiatorstrider, hela tiden noggrant angivande den plats och tidpunkt som var lämpligast för dylika bedrifter. Tillfällen att kurtisera en dam finns alltid och överallt. Du behöver absolut inte söka dig bortom närliggande jaktmarker:
Jägaren vet var han skall sätta sina nät för hjorten,
han vet i vilka dalar det vredgade vildsvinet döljer sig:
fågelfängaren känner skogarna; fiskaren
vet i vilka vatten fiskar leker;
Även du som söker efter evig kärleks mening
bör lära dig var flickor står att finna.
Jag råder dig inte att i din strävan sätta segel,
eller att i sökande slita ut dig under långväga färder.
Att smyga kring på gator och torg, eller under parader och religiösa ceremonier lurpassa på damer i portiker kan givetvis ge napp, men Ovidius rekommendarer främst att uppsöka en plats bredvid en åtrådd dam som fascinerats av en teaterföreställning, en balett, en hästkapplöpning eller ett blodigt gladiatorspektakel. Då hennes sinnen blivit upptända genom det hon betraktar och engagerar sig i blir hon även mer mottaglig för kurtis från en mer eller mindre känd, men attraktiv, ung man.
Bästa jaktstället är den terasserade teatern:
den är bäst lämpad för dina behov.
Där kommer du att finna någon som är värdig din åtrå,
någon att leka med, att vara tillsammans med för en kort tid,
eller bevara i din närhet för all framtid.
Likt återvändande myrors långa karavaner,
då de i sina gap bär med sig sin favoritföda,
eller som bin då de svärmar kring blommor och timjan,
bland utvalda fält och väldoftande ängar,
så lockas förnäma damer till beryktade spektakel ...
Mest ingående beskrev Ovidius hur en driftig ung man kunde bete sig under de välbevistade hästkapplöpningar som ägde rum i Palatinens, Kejsarpalatsets, skugga:
Förgät inte kapplöpningarna med sina ädla hingstar:
Cirkus [kapplöpningsbanan] hyser en väldig, medgörlig publik.
Här finns inte behov av några i hemlighet givna meddelanden,
inte någon diskret nick som bekräftar att hon accepterat din invit:
Du kan sitta bredvid din åtrådda dam: inget är förbjudet,
pressa ditt lår mot hennes, det kan du ostört göra hela tiden,
därtill gynnas du av folkmassan, även om du ogillar den.
Kurtis befrämjas av platsens karaktär.
Finn nu en anledning att inleda en vänlig konversation,
engagera dig först i enkelt småprat.
Informera dig om hästarnas ägare
och skynda dig att satsa på hennes favorit, vem det än kan vara.
[…] om ett damkorn händelsevis hamnat på hennes knä,
vifta försiktigt bort det genom dina fingrars lätta beröring,
avlägsna det även om det inte skulle finnas där;
låt vad som helst bli en orsak till att tjäna henne.
Nuddar hennes dräkt vid den dammiga marken, lyft upp den;
som belöning för din artighet, om hon tillåter det,
kan du få en skymt av hennes välformade vader.
Glöm inte att kasta en blick mot dem som sitter bakom er,
kanske någon pressar sitt skarpa knä mot hennes vackra rygg.
Små handlingar smickrar lättsamma sinnen;
var med ett erfaret grepp behjälplig med att puffa upp hennes sittdyna
och det är tillrådligt att varligt fläkta henne med en solfjäder,
eller placera en medhavd pall under hennes ljuva fötter.
Givetvis behandlar inte en sådan författare Orfeus historia med samma allvar som sin förebild Vergilius. Ovidius handlag är betydligt luftigare än Vergilius, men minst lika fantasieggande och intressant. Då Eurydike glider bort från Orfeus ner i Hades mörker, sträcker hon liksom hos Vergilius sina händer mot honom, men hon säger ingenting, hon har redan förvandlats till en stum vålnad:
Rädd att hon tröttnat och ivrig att se, om hon ännu följde,
såg sig den älskade om: strax sjönk hon ner i djupet,
och när han sträcker ut för att famna och famnas
ack, blott vikande luft, blott luft den olycklige fångar.
Döende än en gång dock ej på maken hon klagar,
ty vad har hon väl att beklaga mer än hans kärlek?
Den unga kvinna som Orfeus förde med sig upp ur Dödens Riken var en helt annan varelse än den som dog från honom. Hon var redan märkt av döden. Som Rainer Maria Rilke skriver i sin dikt Orpheus. Eurydike. Hermes:
Hon var inneluten i sig själv.
Fylld till brädden av sin väldiga död.
Som en frukt av sötma och mörker,
så uppfylld var hon av sin död.
Så ny för henne att hon inte kunde greppa den.
[…] Hon var inte längre den blonda kvinna
vars närvaro stundom ekat i diktarens sång,
inte längre doften av den breda sängen, äktenskapets ö,
hon tillhörde inte längre mannen framför henne.
Rilkes skildringar av Orfeus är elegiskt stillsammare än den dynamiska spänstighet som präglar Ovidius poesi. Jag förmodar att den konstfascinerade Rilkes melankoli, och inte minst titeln på hans dikt, har inspirerats av en välkänd grekisk gravrelief som finns i Neapels Nationalmusem. Orfeus och Eurydikes blickar dröjer i ett långt farväl alltmedan Hermes som nu skall föra Eurydike tillbaka ner i dödens mörker, försynt rör vid hennes hand som för att påminna Eurydike om att hon slutligen måste skiljas från maken. Gudens vänstra hand greppar nervöst och förläget hans tunikas linning, som för att visa att han inte är tillfreds med sin uppgift.
Hos Ovidius rusar Orfeus efter att förlorat sin Eurydike åter ner i det skräckinjagande Hades, men då han nått fram till den stinkande Styxs stränder vägrar Karon, färjkarlen, att föra honom över den breda floden. Orfeus röst har spruckit av sorg. Bedrövad slår han sig ner vid strandkanten. Där sitter han i sju dagar, smutsig och tillintetgjord tills hungern driver honom upp mot jordelivet.
Under sin ålderdom gjorde den italienske konstnären Giorgio Chirico målning efter målning av den ensamme Orfeus. Han framställde honom som en modedocka sammansatt av olika komponenter, det kan röra sig om antika byggnadsfragment eller mekaniska mojänger. Mannekängen sitter på en scen med en harpa i handen. Det är som om Chirico ville visa en artist som förlorat all sin personlighet och numera enbart består av en sammanställning av andras, eller kanske egna tidigare verk. Chiricos Orfeus ensamhet kan möjligen också vara en allusion till skaldens namn. Det grekiska ορφανό, orfano kan antingen betyda ”föräldralös” eller ”ensling”. Varje konstnär/artist är i princip ensam och lever genom och i sina verk. Som Rainer Maria Rilke skriver i sina Orfeusdikter ”att sjunga är att existera”.
Med tiden får Orfeus tillbaka sin oförlikneliga sångröst och inspiration. Han kan åter framföra sina förföriska sånger. Människor, djur och till och med träd och stenar flockas kring honom och följer honom hängivet, förtrollade av hans skönsång. Men
Nu sökte Orfeus inte kvinnors kärlek,
törhända skadad av sin kärlekstragedi,
eller kanske ansatt av förlorad åtrå.
Många var dock de kvinnor som
brann av begär att dela hans bädd
och som led av sångarens avslag.
Måhända hänföll Orfeus åt thrakiska stammars vana
att åtrå omogna ynglingars blomning och njuta
deras behag under mandomens korta vår.
I sina Metamorfoser låter Ovidius Orfeus besjunga homosexuell kärlek; som Apollons kärlek till Cyparissus, Zeus till Ganymedes och Phoebus till Hyacinthus. Men han sjunger också om Pygmalions kärlek till sin egen skapelse, om Myrrhas incestuösa kärlek till sin far, hur Hippomenes tävlingslust fick honom att fuska, ge sig hän åt ohämmat driftsliv och försmå att tacka Venus för den hjälp hon gett honom och slutligen Venus tragiska kärlek till den vackre jägaren Adonis. Samtliga historier tycks handla om ensidig, begärsdriven och obeständig kärlek.
Odödliga gudars kärlek till dödliga människor baseras på makt och tidsbegränsning. Föremålen för deras begär kommer osvikligen att åldras och dö, samtidigt som de måste underkasta sig gudarnmas vilja. Ett förhållande som speglar Orfeus begär efter unga gossar. Och rör sig Orpehus sång inte kring självcentrerad homosexualitet så skildras likväl en egostiskt färgad sexuell drift, fri från all empati. Pygmalions sexuella passion riktar sig en marmostaty som han skapat. En förälskelse i ett själlöst objekt, en projektion av hans förvridna driftsliv. Det är symptomatiskt att den levandegjorda statyn inte namnges, hon ges ingen egen existens. Myrrahs incestösa förhållande är en omöjlig relation, inte endast brottslig utan också ett hot mot faderns prestige och maktutövande. Han försöker mörda henne utan att skuldbelägga sig själv.
En så makalös artist som Orfeus lämnas sällan ensam. Det måste ha varit ett spektakel då han visade sig omsvärmad av en mängd fåglar, allehanda djur och groupies som hängde vid varje ord han sjöng och sa. Redan tidigt under Antiken beklagade man sig över den makt som en stor artist kunde utöva över sina fanatiska beundrare och det hänvisades då ofta till Orfeus, som inte enbart varit sångare utan även kultledare. En guru omgiven av beundrare som förlorat förmågan av självständigt tänkande.
I sitt drama Agamemnon, som Aicshylos skrev någon gång under 480-talet f.Kr., mördar Klytaimnestra sin make Agamemnon för att han en gång offrat deras dotter och fört med sig sin vackra krigsfånge Kassandra in i deras hushåll. Klytaimnestra eggas till sitt våldsdåd av sin älskare Aighistos som tagit makten över Mykene under sin kusins frånvaro.
Det är Aighistos som nämner Orfeus då han hånar ledaren för Agamemnons följeslagare för att hans män så blint lyder sin herre, alltmedan de anklagar Aighistos för att fegt ha hållit sig undan det trojanska kriget:
Prata på bara –
du kommer att få vråla för varje ord du yttrat, min lille Orfeus.
Lår oss se om världen dansar till din sång,
ditt absurda skällande – som tar andan ur dig!
Jag skall nog också få dig att dansa, få er alla att lyda.
Liksom för oss nutidsmänniskor var sång och musik ytterst viktiga för Antikens greker och alltid närvarande, något som syns redan på en vas från Hagia Triada på Kreta, som 1 500 f.Kr. framställde återvändande skördemän, sjungande för full hals.
Antikens dramer var till stor del sångspel vars framförande krävde mycket av sina divor, som likt vår samtids rockartister lönades med beundrare som tog deras yttranden på och utanför scenen för djup levnadsvisdom. Orfeus var som sagt inte enbart en upphöjd artist utan även kultledare, invigd präst både för sångarguden Apollon, som påstods vara han far och den mångskiftande, barbariske Dionysos. Något som den insiktsfulle Friedrich Nietzsche skriver om i sin Tragedins födelse där han beskriver konst som ett spänningsfält mellan den intellektuella tankekraften i Apollons ljusvärld och det dunkla driftslivet och passionen hos Dionysos.
En åsikt som kom mig att tänka på Rolling Stones Mother´s Little Helper, som forstsätter att eka i skallen på mig. Läste nyligen ett yttrande av den italienske skalden Roberto Musappi:
I Rolling Stones musik upplever jag en berusande dionysisk hängivenhet som konstraterar mot den den stillsamma, apolloniska elegans som så ofta är närvarande hos The Beatles. För mig blir detta ett bevis på konstens dynamik, på själens skapande motsatser.
Vi får en glimt av den store artisten på en krukskärva från tiden kring 450 f.Kr. Den försvann dessvärre spårlöst för mer än hundra år sedan. ”Leve Orfeus” stod det under en svartfigurig vasmålning som framställde hur sångaren försiktigt greppade sin fotsida kiton, alltmedan han med den andra höll sin stora cittra under det att han klev upp på en estrad.
Det var från en sådan position Orfeus predikade sin lära. Han angavs ofta som instiftare av de orfiska lärorna, en mysterireligion som syftade till att förvandla människor till fulländade varelser frälsta från Underjordens skuggriken och befunna värdiga att upplyftas till salighetens lyckorike, bortom tid och rum. För att komma i åtnjutande av en sådan sällhet måste dock en orfiker ha levt ett rättskaffens och asketiskt liv, helst enbart ha livnärt sig på grönsaker, genom jordelivet ha bevarat sin kyskhet och helst även ha fördjupat sig i en mängd heliga skrifter, av vilka flera påstods ha författas av Orfeus. I Euripides drama Hippolytos retar sig den burduse hjältekonungen Theseus på sin asketiske och enligt honom alltför fromme och därmed skenhelige son Hippolytos:
Oh ja, gör dig till nu,
skryt du med din vegetariska diet,
ta Orfeus till din mästare
följ honom i hans galna balett ,
prisa hans värdelösa klotter
– för du är fast i hans dumheter!
Jag råder alla män att undvika den sortens människor;
sådana som försöker fånga din själ med högdragna ord
och vad de hittils har planerat är långt ifrån hederligt.
Orfikerna trodde på en myt som berättade att Dionysosbarnet skulle frälsa världen, något som Orfeus förkunnat genom sång och musik. Konsten förmår lyfta oss ur vardagslivets lunk, sång och spel är en svag återklang av sfärernas musik, universums innersta själ och ordning. Men, Dionysosbarnet hade blivit sönderslitet och uppätet av titanerna, som straffats för sitt dåd genom att Allfader Zeus med sina blixtar förintade dem till aska. Av titanernas aska, som även innehöll resterna av Dionysosbarnet, skapade Zeus människorna, som därigenom i sitt väsen hyser både dionysisk gudomlighet och ond titanisk materia. Frälsningsvägen går genom ett övervinnande av materien, det köttsliga begäret och ett uppriktigt anammande av andelivet – konsten, religionen., musiken och askesen Kroppen är själens grav, befrielse från dess uselhet sker genom att vi förnekar våra låga drifter, då kommer vår själ att efter döden lyftas upp till Lycksalighetens sfärer. De som inte renats genom askes och mystiska, hemlighållna riter kommer aldrig att nå denna salighet – ”de får ligga kvar i smutsen”.
En som trodde på detta var den försupne, opiumberoende, fule och gudabenådade diktaren Erik Johan Stagnelius som 1823 ensam och fattig dog i Stockholm endast 29 år gammal. Han skrev ”ond och besvärlig är tiden jag lever i, dubbelt värre är dock livet jag lever däri”. Och det hade han nog rätt i. Dock var han i min mening en av Sveriges allra största poeter. För snart trettio år sedan arbetade jag intensivt tillsammans med min vän Leif Magnusson med ett filmmanus kring Stagnelius liv. Jag fick bra betalt för mitt arbete, men det blev aldrig någon film. Jag har dock förblivit tacksam för möjligheten jag då fick att grundligt bekanta mig med Stagnelius gripande verk – de har stryka, närvaro och ett ovanligt rytmiskt, vackert språk.
Medan jag skrev om Stagnelius arbetade jag som lärare och fick då uppleva en av de få triumferna i mitt yrkesliv. Bland mina ”verkstadselever” hade jag en udda ung man som av mina kollegor, genom sin uppkäftiga attityd, svåra hemförhållanden och ovanligt usla studieresultat, betraktades som ett hopplöst fall. En del var även rädda för honom. Han var en så kallad ”svartrockare”, ständigt klädd i slitna svarta kläder, piercad och fylld med tatueringar. Jag upptäckte dock att han skrev och spelade egna låtar. Jag undrade om han möjligen hade någon inspelning med sin musik. Han lyste upp och tog med sig några band. De var förvånansvärt bra. Då jag djärvt nog började läsa några stagneliusdikter för de där marginaliserade och av många föraktade ”säreleverna” fick jag ett entusiastisk gensvar från svartrockaren. En dag dök han upp med en egen tolkning till gittarackompanjemang av:
Förruttnelse, hasta, o älskade brud,
att bädda vårt ensliga läger!
Förskjuten av världen, förskjuten av Gud,
blott dig till förhoppning jag äger.
Fort, smycka vår kammare – på svartklädda båren
den suckande älskaren din boning skall nå.
”Visst är det en djävligt härlig rytm i det där” konstaterade den svartklädde ynglingen. Och visst hade han rätt. Jag såg i honom en sorglig återglans av den olycklige Stagnelius. Som fallet är med så många av mina före detta elever har han för länge sedan försvunnit ur mitt liv och jag undrar vad det blev av honom. Kanske gick han under, som den olycklige Stagnelius.
Ovidius Metamorfoser var Stagnelius älsklingsverk och i sin favoritskalds efterföljd skrev han ett välljudande, men antagligen ospelbart versdrama om en Orfeus som tycks utgöra sinnebilden av Stagnelius olyckliga tillvaro som en ful och osund stackare, som trots att han var en Sveriges genom tiderna största poeter aktivt motarbetades av samtidens litterära etablissemang. I Backanterna ger Stagnelius utlopp för sina önskedrömmar om kvinnor och en lycksalig tillvaro bortom döden. Orfeus är hos honom en genialisk sångare, men långt ifrån att vara en uppblåst estradör är han en mild och vänlig själ som predikar kärlek och tolerans. Dock plågas han likt Stagnelius av tillvarons grymhet och håglöshet, enbart i sin diktning och i sina drömmar finner Orfeus lindring från allt elände som drabbar honom:
En skugga jorden är, ett spöke solen,
en mörk tenarisk dunst, en Stygisk dimma,
en rök är allt vad vi som vakne tänka.
Blott sovande, blott då, när kroppens boja
av dvalans hand symboliskt redan lossas,
upplysas vi, o sanning! Av ditt ljus,
och i en skönare natur med häpnad bo.
O, drömde jag ännu!
Jag såge då, jag visste mycket mera.
Orfeus försäkrar att vi alla dyrkar samma gud och han tror att förnuft och tolerans leder till försoning. Därför beger han sig till backanternas offerfest till Dionysos ära, trots att de rasat mot hans öppenhet inför andras tro. Deras Dionysos är den ende Guden om någon är av en annan åsikt och än värre basunerar ut den över världen bör han dödas innan än fler förvandlas till gudsförnekare. Genom att inför dessa fanatiker framföra sina sånger och tillsammans med dem offra till Dionysos inbillar sig Orfeus att han skall kunna överbrygga klyftan mellan Dionysoskultens oförsonlighet och hans orfiska läras upphöjda tolerans.
Under offerceremonien blir backanternas ledarinna stucken i ansiktet av en broms från Underjordens riken. Rasande över att ha blivit avbruten i sin hyllning till Den Ende Guden öser hon sitt raseri över den oskyldige Orfeus, som assisterat henne vid offret. Hennes ilska smittar av sig på församlingen och som om de vore ett enda vansinnigt vildjur fylls deras hjärtan till brädden av hat mot den stillsamme gudsmannen Orfeus. I en paroxysm av kollektivt våld och raseri lynchar de honom och sliter hans kropp i stycken. Men som den upplyste mystiker han är så blir döden en befrielse för Orfeus:
Jag lycksalig är.
Eoner av oändlig glädje för min blick
sig öppna, som för mänskoögon himlar, hav,
och högt på jorden skall man sjunga mitt beröm,
så länge Lyrans silver strålar än i skyn
och himlasvanen över vintergatans flod
stjärnprydda vingar breder i den lugna natt.
O, mina barn! Ej hundra offerstjurars blod,
trollformler och mystärer, helga vågors bad
borttvätta själens smitta. Lydnad blott för den,
som öppnar och sluter Orci kopparport,
Stavbäraren Hermes, Maias vingbeklädde Son.
Stagnelius hyllar Hermes, den gud som ledsagar de döda genom Dödens port, men som också uppfunnit lyran, symbolen för musikens gudomliga, livgivande kraft. Frågan kvarstår dock om orfismen, som den store mytforskaren Martin P:n. Nilsson en gång antog, var en slags reformation inom den dionysiska väckelserörelse som under 500-talet f. Kr. skakade om den grekiska världen. I så fall skulle Orfeus, likt Stagnelius gestalt, ha försökt omforma den vilda dionysoskulten till en mer stillsam, meditativt inriktad livsåskådning.
Den ursprunliga dionysoskulten var en extatisk rörelse som fångade speciellt kvinnor, som i ett passionerat rus orsakat av vin och besatthetsfenomen ägnade sig åt origiastiska riter som bland annat innebar att de samlades ute i naturen, där de under vildsint dans och sång offrade till sin gudom genom att sönderslita och förtära offerdjuren. Något som skildrats i Euripides skådespel Backanterna i vilket guden Dionysos i mänsklig gestalt besöker jordelivet och bestraffar dem som inte tror på honom. Orpehus uppträder inte i Euripides Backanter, men han har mycket gemensamt med guden Dionysos – bland annat att han var en främling i landet, blev sönderliten och pånyttfödd, samt han besökte Dödsriket och kom tillbaka. Dionysos hade en gång varit där för att hämta tillbaka sin döda mor Semele och göra henne till gudinna.
Forskare har spårat Orfeus och Dionysos till Thrakien. Thrakerna som befolkade östra Balkan förutom Hellas, ansågs av gerkerna vara ett gåtfullt folk. De talade ett annat språk och hade andra seder, men de koloniserades efterhand av grekerna och Thrakien kom att bli en del av Grekland, även om dess invånare även fortsättningsvis betraktades som ett slags främlingar; blonda, högresta, bondaktiga och blodtörstiga. Inte desto mindre fanns en ömsesidig påverkan mellan thraker och greker. De senare övertog många drag från thrakisk kultur, inte minst från deras religion.
Även romare betraktade thraker och deras särpräglade kultur som ett främmande, exotiskt och inte minst dynamiskt inslag i den rika blandkultur som kom att kallas hellenism. Berömda thraker var exempelvis gladiatorn Spartakus, som ledde ett blodigt och nästan framgångsrikt uppror mot den romerska centralmakten och den burduse militärkejsaren Maximinus Thrax, som dagligen slukade tjugo kilo fläsk, satte i sig arton flaskor vin och kunde imponera på sin omgivning genom att med knytnäven slå ut tänderna på hästar. När något gick honom emot vrålade Thrax som ett djur och dunkade huvudet i väggen.
Dionysos – vinets, vinskördens och rusets gud, inte enbart i meningen av alkoholberusning utan också den berusning, eller snarare besatthet, som dans, musik, drama och religion kan ge upphov till. Han kallades ofta den ”tvåfalt födde” och ansågs först ha alstrats genom föreningen av himmelsguden Zeus med Underjordens härskarinna Persephone, dotter till fruktbarhetens Demeter. Zeus hade för avsikt att göra Dionysos till sin arvtagare men hans ständigt svartsjuka syster och hustru Hera såg till att Zeus fiender, titanerna, rövade bort det lilla barnet, styckade honom och åt upp honom. Zeus tillintetgjorde kannibalerna med sina blixtar, med hade innan dess lyckats få tag på en bit av sonens hjärta.
Zeus inledde därefter en kärlekshistoria med prinsessan av Thebe, Semele och bjöd henne på en dryck i vilken han löst upp fragmentet av Dionysos hjärta . Den ständigt intrigerande Hera dök upp hos Semele, förvandlad till hennes fars gamla amma och lyckades bli den vackra men naiva prinsessans förtrogna. Semele undrade om hennes märklige älskare verkligen kunde vara Zeus. Den förklädda Hera förklarade att så var fallet och att han sannerligen inte var vilken gud som helst – han var Allfader Zeus, hela universums härskare. Men det skulle han enbart avslöja om han besegrades genom kvinnlig list. Hera förklarade att om Semele verkligen ville försäkra sig om att Zeus makt och kärlek så skulle hon be honom att under en bindande ed vid floden Styx ge henne vad hon än önskade. Den kärlekskranke Zeus gick med på det, väl medveten om att hans gudsnatur förbjöd honom att bryta en sådan ed.
Semele bad Zeus att visa sig i sin sanna gestalt. Hera visste att om en vanlig människa får skåda Universums Herre i en sådan egenskap så dör hon. Zeus kunde inte neka till Semeles begäran och då han visade sig i hela sitt förkrossande majestät brändes Semele till döds, men Dionysos foster hade mirakulöst klarat sig och Zeus sydde in det i sitt högra lår ur vilket Dionysos föddes efter den tid som det skulle ha tagit för ett barn att ha skapats i sin moders sköte.
Den tvåfalt födde Dionysos blev symbol för universums eviga bestånd och oavbrutna förnyelse. Ur död skapas nytt liv och detta blev det centrala budskapet i de orfiska mysteriekulterna inom vilka deltagarna blev besatta av det andliga rusets gud och därmed förlorade sitt jordiska jag och blev till en del av gudomen, så att de därigenom skulle kunna övervinna döden genom att bli ett med universum. En katharsis, rening, som också sades befrämjas genom de skådespel som i Athen uppfördes till Dionysos ära. Därmed tämjdes den otyglade trakhiska vildheten och integrerades med athensk logik och klartänkthet. Kluvenhet blev till enhet.
Att stycka någon/något i bitar och förena dem till något nytt är återkommande tema inom flera religioner. Exempelvis inom nörrön mytologi dödade, slaktade och styckade guden Odin och hans bröder Vile och Ve jätten Ymer och tillverkade av hans kropp världen; blodet blev vatten, benen berg, håret träd, huvudskålen himlavalvet, hjärnan moln och ögonen blev sol och måne.
För grekerna var allt norr om och inklusive Thrakien barbarernas landområden och de ansågs alla vara ociviliserade horder med likartade seder. En av trakhernas gudar, Zagreus, blev liksom Ymer dödad och styckad, men också återuppstånden och förvandlad till fruktbarhetsgud. Det vilda, otyglade draget inom thrakisk religion ansågs av den irländske klassisten Eric Robertson Dodds ha haft en dynamisk inverkan på antik grekisk religion. Dodds kopplade thrakiska trosföreställningar till den omfattande shamanistiska tradition som var vanlig inom sibiriska, nordiska och nordamerikanska religioner. För honom tyder myterna kring Dionysos och hans förkunnare Orfeus på att den senare uppenbarligen kan betraktas som en shaman. På ett övertygande sätt listar Dodds Orfeus egenskaper och sammanställer dem med sibirisk shamantradition.
Han förenar verksamheter som poet, magiker, religiös lärare och orakeltolkare. Likt legendariska sibiriska shamaner kan han med sin sång och musik locka till sig fåglar och djur och få dem att lyssna på honom. Liksom shamaner överallt besöker han Underjorden och orsaken är densamma som för andra shamaner – att återhämta en stulen själ. Slutligen fortlever hans magiska jag efter döden i form av ett sjungande huvud, som fortsätter att ge orakelsvar och förmedla vishet.
Inom norrön mytologi halshugger vanerna Mimer, skaldekonstens och vishetens främste förmedlare, och sänder huvudet till asarna. Oden tog huvudet, smorde det med örter som hindrade det från att ruttna och kvad trollsånger över det så att det kunde tala med honom och uppenbara fördolda ting.
Dodds pekar på ytterligare egenheter som Orfeus tycks ha haft gemensamt med shamaner, exempelvis transvestism. Såväl Odin som Dionysos uppträder emellanåt i kvinnokläder och det gjorde också Orfeus, exempelvis på krukskärvan som visade honom klädd i en kvinnlig kiton. En suggestiv skildring av en modern shaman, som även han är transvestit, är Mikael Niemis beskrivning av den egendomlige Ryssi-Jussi i Populär musik från Vittula.
Ett centralt motiv hos Orfeus och orfikerna är åtskiljandet av kropp och själ. En shaman kan frigöra sin personlighet från kroppens skal och utanför den färdas mellan olika platser. Shamaners själar kunde även de träda in i såväl människors som djurs gestalter och det antogs att en shamans själ efter döden kunde ta sig en ny boning i en efterträdares kropp. Flera orfiker betraktade kroppen som ”själens grav och boning”, en del betraktade den som en ondskefull fångvaktare som drog själen ner i driftslivets jordiska smuts, andra såg kroppen som själens nödvändiga boning, en hemvist som måste vårdas och bevaras – ”en sund själ i en sund kropp”.
Kanske är Dionysos och hans tjänare Orfeus gestalter sammansatta av inflytanden från flera kulturer, varav en del fann sina rötter på annat håll än i nordliga områden. Grekiska och romerska författare betraktade i allmänhet Dionysos som en invandrad nykomling. De grundade sin uppfattning på att guden och hans tjänare mestadels skildras som främlingar och att Dionysos knappt nämns i Homeros Iliad. Arkeologiska fynd tycks dock bevisa motsatsen – nämligen att Dionysos är en av Greklands äldsta gudar. I Pylos har man funnit lertavlor härstammande från 1 300 f.Kr. med inristningar skrivna med Linear B alfabetet. De var tydligen fragment av offergåvor, krus som främst innehållit vin som helgats år guden Diwonusujo. Liknande bevis för en samtida dionysoskult har grävts fram i Khania och Knossos på Kreta, bland annat i form av krukor vars inskrifter visar att de innehållit honung offrad till Zeus och Dionysos.
Forskningresanden och historiken Herodotos skrev på 450-talet f.Kr att ”det där som vi kallar orfiskt och dionysiskt kommer egentligen från Egypten” och det har fått flera historiker att koppla samman myterna om Orfeus och Dionysys med sina sönderstyckade, sammanfogade och återuppstånda kroppar med egyptiska föreställningar om mumier och Osirismyten. Flera hundra år efter Herodotos påstod den grekiske skriftställaren Diodorus Siculus (90 – 39 f.Kr.) att Dionysos och Osiris helt enkelt var samma gud. Att Osiris förstörs, balsameras och återskapas till något nytt och mäktigare som förmår omforma människornas sinne jämförde Diodoros med krossandet, pressandet och jäsningen av vindruvor som krävs för att framställa vin.
Osiris var en fruktbarhetsgud som enligt myten dödades av sin bror Set, som styckade kroppen i minst tretton delar som han sedan spred ut över hela Egypten. Osiris hustru Isis och hennes syster Neftys lyckades efter flera års sökande återfinna alla kroppsdelarna och sätta ihop dem igen. Gudarna Anubis och Thot balsamerade kroppen, skapade därmed den första mumien och lyckades till och med få liv i den så att Isis kunde bli befruktad och föda sonen Horus, som slutligen hämnades sin faders död. När Osiris återigen dog blev han härskare över Duat, De dödas värld, där han vårdar jordens fruktbarhet och bestämmer vilka själar som är värdiga att få ett evigt liv. Mumien är liksom hos orfikerna själens grav och boning, men till skillnad från grekerna ansåg tydligen de forntida egyptierna att kroppen måste bevaras och vårdas även efter döden, även om själen kunde röra sig fritt mellan olika världar.
Liksom Osiris och Dionysos blev även Orfeus styckad. Resterna av hans kropp försvann, förutom huvudet. Orfeus själ fortsatte dock att leva genom mästarens sång och musik. Myten berättar att flera av Dionysos kvinnliga anhängare, backanterna, såg sig svikna antingen genom Orfeus homosexualitet, eller det faktum att han fortfarande hyllade sin kärlek till Eurydike, något som får mig att tänka på sextiotalets Beatlemania då unga, fanatiska anhängare till Beatles blev besvikna och rasande då någon av Beatlarna gifte sig.
Under alla förhållanden blev Orfeus anfallen av rasande backanter som slet honom i stycken. Hans spridda kroppsdelar och avslitna huvud blev liggande på stranden tills tidvattnet kom och havsströmmarna förde det, vilande på hans cittra till ön Lesbos strand.
Där togs det omhand av en av de kvinnor som tillhörde en mysteiekult som sedermera skulle anföras av den grekiska lyrikern Sapfo, som verkade vid slutet av 600-talet f.Kr. Närvaron av Orfeus huvud sågs som orsaken till att Lesbos blev hemorten för två av Antikens mest beundrade poeter – Alakaios och Sapfo, samt den store filosofen Epikuros.
Efter alla dessa trassliga turer kring den mågnfacetterade Orfeusgestalten kan det vara lämpligt att avsluta med ett enkelt svar på frågan ”Varför vände sig Orfeus om när han var så nära sitt mål och därmed sände Eurydike tillbaka till Döden?” Enligt mig gavs det bästa svaret av den sicilianske författaren Gesualdo Bufalino i hans novell Eurydikes hemkomst.
Bufalino berättar hur Eurydike sitter ensam och frusen vid stranden av Styx. På sin skadade fot har hon efter Orfeus fatala tillbakablickande haltat tillbaka längs den mörka hålvägen ner till den svarta floden som hon måste färjas över för att kunna återvända till sin väninna Proserpinas dystra palats. Mer förundrad och chockad än förtvivlad tänker Eurydike tillbaka på livet tillsammans med sin beundrade och älskade Orfeus.
Bröllopfesten hade varit en misslyckad tillställning, även om äktenskapets gud Hymen hade kommit resande långt ifrån för att viga Orefus och Eurydike hade den ceremoniella bröllopsfacklan enbart fräst och gnistrat utan att ta ordentligt fyr. Ett illavarslande tecken som fördystrade festen, melankolin kunde inte skingras, varken av den utsökta matten eller det myckna vinet, inte ens av Orfeus bedårande skönsång.
Då vardagslivet tagit sin början kunde Eurydike inte fördriva all den tristess som kom sig av att sångarguden visade för intresse för något annat än sin skaldekonst. Han försmådde sin unga hustru genom att under långa tider lämna henne ensam med trista hushållsbestyr, eller sittande vid vävstolen. Själv solade sig Orefus i glansen av sin berömdhet och all den beundran hans kärlekssånger till Eurydike väckte bland gränslöst beundrande åhörarskaror.
Med tiden irriterade sig Eurydike alltmer på Poetens, hon kallade honom alltid för det, självcentrerade uppträdande och faktum att han tycktes finna att hennes närtvaro begränsade för han skaparkraft. Det unga parets granne, en fåraherde och biodlare vid namn Aristaios, som liksom Orfeus var son till Apollon. började under Poetens frånvaro slå trånande lovar kring Eurydike. Mer av tristess än på allvar understödde Eurydike i det närmaste omedvetet grannens försiktiga kurtis. En dag tog dock kättjan överhanden hos Aristaios och han jagade Eurydike ut över ett fält där hon trampade på en huggorm som gav henne ett dödligt hugg i hälen.
Medan Orfeus firade ytterligare triumfer med sina sorgekväden över den döda hustrun straffade gudarna Aristaios genom att döda alla hans bin. Förtvivlat sökte han blidka gudarnas vrede. Den ende som visste råd var sjögudomligheten Proteus, som inte berättade något om man inte kunde ta ett stadigt grepp på honom. Detta var så gott som omöjligt eftersom Proteus kunde förvandla sig till vad som helst. Den alltmer frustrerade Aristaios lyckades dock hålla fast den formskiftande guden, även om han förvandlade sig till en ål, en skorpion, en virvelvind, en eldslåga, forsande vatten. Till slut gav Proeteus upp och förklarade att gudarna skulle blidkas om Aristaios offrade fyra tjurar och fyra kvigor på Eurydikes grav. Efter att Aristaios gjort som Proteus sagt alstrades bisvärmar ur offerdjurens ruttnande kadaver. Detta mirakel var orsaken till att den biodlingsintreserade Vergilius i sin jordbruksdikt Georgica berättade Orfeus och Eurydkies historia och därmed inspirerade den yngre Ovidius att minst lika välformulerat återberätta den i sina Metamorfoser.
Nåväl, låt oss återvända till Eurydikes funderingar vid Styx strand. Hon hade blivit djupt rörd då hennes älskade Poet företagit den riskfyllda färden ner till Hades palats för att som den första människan någonsin föröka rädda någon från Döden. Och han lyckades med det nästan otroliga konststycket att beveka Dödens härskares hårda hjärta. Orefus triumf kom sig av att han i sin sång listigt anspelade på Hades stora kärlek som en gång gjort att han för länge sedan sökt sig upp till jordytan för att därifrån röva bort den kvinna han åtrådde mest av allt och sedan göra henne till härskarinna över sitt rike.
Men … efter att ha gjort sig allt detta besvär, efter denna stora seger – varför vände sig då Orfeus om och omintetgjorde hela bedriften? Då – där i mörkret och övergivenheten, lättade plötsligt Euridykes melankoli. Inte för att hennes situation hade förbättrats utan för att hon slutligen förstod allt. Varför Orfeus vände sig om. Det var inte för hennes skull. Det var för sin egen berömmelse han gjorde det. Orfeus hade inte förlorat något. Livet tillsammans med Eurydike hade inte alls blivit så som han förväntat sig. Hon hade blivit en black om foten. Tanken på henne och hennes ständiga pockande på närvaro hade lämnat smolk i berömmelsens glädjebägare. Nu var Orfeus åter fri! Och unik – den störste sångaren av dem alla hade på egen hand, beväpnad enbart med sång och skaldekonst bemästrat alla Underjordens monster och fördömda själar. Han hade besegrat själva Döden! Nu behövde Orfeus inte längre någon Eurydike. Hela jorden låg inför hans fötter. Med en euforisk känsla av total befrielse och triumf lämnade Orfeus det töckenomhöljda, dystra Hades bakom sig, steg ut i det värmane solskenet och stämde upp smäktande hyllningssånger till Eurydike.
Märkligt nog förvandlas varken Orfeus eller Eurydike i Ovidius Metamorfoser, likt de andra männskorna han berättar om, till växter eller djur. Det hade kanske varit nära till hands att göra Orfeus till en koltrast eller näktergal, men den som förvandlades till en sådan fågel var Philomela, som straff för att hon bistått sin syster då denna hade mördat sin son, tillagat honom och serverat honom som en utsökt maträtt till sin hatade make Tereus. Efter sin död blev Philomela drottning över alla näktergalar, antagligen var det ironiskt menat eftersom en näktergalshona inte kan sjunga.
Att jag i samband med Orfeus kom att tänka på mäktergalar beror på att jag mindes min vän och kollega Berndt Dagerklint som dog för ett par år sedan. Han var förtjust i Hjalmar Gullbergs diktning och brukade försäkra mig om att dikten Till en näktergal i Malmö är det vackraste som skrivits om sjukkdom, åldrande och död. Eftersom jag började min essä genom att beklaga mig över min begynnande ålderdom så kan jag ju sluta med några rader från den dikten
I sjukhusparken hänger månens lykta;
det glittrar genom rullgardinens dok.
Nu lyssnar alla sorgsna och betryckta
till Höga visan ur naturens bok.
Den störste sångaren på denna jorden
har kommit för att skingra våra kval.
Jag hör musik och letar efter orden.
Sjung, näktergal, min hemstads näktergal!
Aischylos (1977) The Orestia translated by Robert Fagles. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Classics. Bufalino, Gesualdo (1994) The Keeper of Ruins. London: Harvill/Harper Collins. Dodds, E. R. (1973) The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: University of California Press. Euripides (2003) Medea and Other Plays Translated by John Davie. London: Penguin Classics. Euripides (2006) The Bacchae and Other Plays Translated by John Davie. London: Penguin Classics. Gullberg, Hjalmar (1942) Fem kornbröd och två fiskar. Stockholm: Norstedts. Harrie, Ivar (1962) Sju grekiska sagor. Stockholm: Prisma. Henrikson, Alf (1983) Antikens historier. Stockholm: Bonniers. Isler-Kérenyi, Cornelia (2006) Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An Understanding Through Images. Leyden: Brill. Musappi, Roberto (ed.) (2019) Orfeo: La nascita della poesia. Milano: Mondadori. Nilsson, Martin P:n (1963) Helvetets förhistoria: Straff och sällhet i den andra världen i förkristen religion. Stockholm: Aldus. Ovidius, Publius Naso (1961) Metamorfoser. Stockholm: Natur och kultur. Ovid (1983) The Erotic Poems Translated by Peter Green. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Classics. Ovid (2004) Metamorphoses: A New Verse Translation by David Raeburn. London: Penguin Classics. Rilke, Rainer Maria (2011) Selected Poems with Parallel German Text. New Translations by Susan Ranson and Marielle Sutherland. Oxford: Oxford World´s Classics. Stagnelius, Erik Johan (2014) Bacchanterna eller Fanatismen. Sorgespel i Samlade Skrifter I: Tryckta skrifter. Stockholm: Svenska Akademin/Atlantis.
Förgät inte kapplöpningarna med sina ädla hingstar:
Cirkus [kapplöpningsbanan] hyser en väldig, medgörlig publik.
Här finns inte behov av några i hemlighet givna meddelanden,
inte någon diskret nick som bekräftar att hon accepterat din invit:
Two months ago I visited in Gothenburg the younger of my sisters. Well ... she is not so young anymore, four years older than I am she is now 69 years. However, that does not hinder us from getting along just as good as when we were kids together. With my sisters, I share an interest in literature and the arts, and we are never at a loss of topics to talk about, although due to my annoying way of being I generally do most of the talking.
We visited the Botanical Gardens, the Art Museum, bookstores, markets, and the city library. At the last-mentioned place I became fascinated by Sven Ljungberg's frescoes, inspired by Pär Lagerkvist's Guest of Reality, a novel that most Swedes of my generation are relatively well acquainted with, partly because it was compulsory reading in school, and partly because it was filmed by Lagerkvist's son Bengt and was presented during the Swedish television's childhood. I had been thoroughly gripped by both the reading- and film experience. When I looked up at Ljungberg's angular, slightly naivistic frescoes feelings from long ago came back to me.
Sven Ljungberg stands out as an artist who has been particularly skillful in depicting both the Swedish countryside and its small towns, in all their beauty and boredom. So have childhood narratives like Lagerkvist´s Guest of Reality, Harry Martinsson's Flowering Nettle and Eyvind Johnson's Here´s Your Life, the last-mentioned novel tells the story about a fourteen-years-old Olof, who thus is older than the twelve-years-old Anders in Guest of Reality. Martin in Flowering Nettle was only seven years when his mother left him and his difficult life as a sockenbarn, Community Child, began, meaning that he was “sold” to the peasant who would keep him at the lowest community expenditure, something that meant a sockenbarn had to work hard for his/her living. These novels have since I read them remained with me, not only because they were well written and easy to read, but mainly since they to a high degree were autobiographical tales about hardship in a poor Sweden of bygone times, witnessed and experienced by curious and sensitive children on the verge of adolescence.
One of Ljungberg's frescoes depicts Anders sitting on a handcart while his self-confident and serene father, foreman at Växjö´s railway station, drives them through summertime Småland, a poor but nevertheless lush landscape in southern Sweden, with glittering lakes, fragrant forests and flowering meadows. On his lap, Anders holds a basket with coffee, sugar and a piece of yeast they are bringing to his grandmother. Anders loves his Granny, who looks and behaves like his mother, though she is old and skinny. He likes staying at his grandparents' place, though he has great respect for his deeply religious grandfather, whom he finds somewhat frightening. In their garden, Anders picks berries from the bushes or lies in the grass enjoying the warm sunlight, listening to the sounds of nature.
Anders is happy there, but this mood changes when evening approaches with darkening clouds predicting a threatening thunderstorm. Anders´s father has to return to Växjö, preferably before the storm. He has the early morning shift at the station and as the weather shows signs of becoming violent and dangerous he tells Anders that he has to remain with the grandparents overnight. Alone with the ancient couple, while thunder, storm, and heavy rain rage around them, the boy listens to his ancient grandfather, who looks like a grave and mighty prophet, reading aloud from the Book of Revelation, about a judgmental God pouring out his seven bowls of wrath upon the earth to punish a humanity lost in sin against him.
In the middle of the night, the storm has subsided and Anders wakes up. With increasing fear he watches how his grandparents lay absolutely still next to each other. Worried he pitter-patters towards them, carefully and silently in the moonlight shining through the window. “Are they dead?” When he comes close to them he can see that his grandparents are breathing and thus assured he quietly returns to his bed, overwhelmed by terrifying thoughts about death. Anders´s own death and that of others are constantly on his mind. He is filled to the brim by worrisome thoughts and wild fantasies. Amidst his deeply religious close of kin, his entire existence is threatened by a dark cloud of anxiety hovering above him, created by his thoughts about God's fearful omnipotence and a relentlessly approaching death.
One day he sits alone on a garden path and thoughtlessly digs a small pit among the pebbles, the imposing restaurateur passes by, Anders's numerous family lives on the second floor of the railway restaurant. The stately man leans over the boy and states that he should be very careful about digging pits, however small they might mean that someone in his family will soon die. Terrified Anders fills in the pit and runs away. Who is going to die? Maybe his mother, maybe his sisters, maybe Grandma. Will his father be run over by a train?
Another day, Anders ends up by the restaurant's woodshed where the old firewood provider stands sawing lump wood, s ofhalf seriously and half-jokingly he tells the boy that he has been sawing and cutting firewood all his life and if he had not been doing all those living and working at the railway hotel and those living there would have frozen to death long ago. Once again, Anders is overtaken by his suffocating fear of death, not his own but the one of all those he loves and feels safe among. He goes down into the ice cellar of the restaurant to experience how dying from cold could feel like.
The incident with the sawing Wood Man appears to have been an unusually impressive childhood memory. A sawing old man is repeatedly appearing in Lagerkvist's texts. In collections of short stories like The Eternal Smile from 1920 and Evil Tales written in 1924 the Wood Man has become an incarnation of God, but not as a judgmental and threatening god. The sawing old man is an incarnation of the simple, hard peasant life. The peasant´s daily toil to bring food on the table, security, and shelter for his family. The Wood Man is by Lagerkvist representing a confident, dutiful god, like a “mother every day saying the same words to her children.” The God who Lagerkvist praises in his early writing is a seemingly uncomplicated figure, who through his humble and untiring toil provides peace and security to humanity. A God who draws up a boundary against abundance and exaggeration, who through his daily routines and strict laws guarantees balance and survival. Death is his servant, a prerequisite for the universe´s survival and constant renewal. A view of life that makes me think of the Swedish poet, children´s book writer, and artist Barbro Lindgren's simple and seemingly childish poems:
One time we shall die
You and I.
All people shall die
and all animals
and all trees will die
and the flowers on the ground,
but
not all at the same time
only now and then
making it hardly noticeable.
Perhaps Lagerkvist's early image of a stoically calm God and the necessity of facing death with calm and forbearance was an attitude created by the piety characterizing his parental home, where the only available books were the Bible and the Hymn Book of the Swedish Church. In the short story Father and I, one of the Evil Tales from 1924, published one year before Guest of Reality, terror breaks into the idyll. Just as in Guest of Reality, father and son are traveling on a handcart along a railroad track. They make a stop in a summery forest and the father tells his son how he liked to walk there as a child, they also visit the boy´s grandparents, but when night arrives and they return along the railway tracks, they are suddenly surprised by a violently onrushing train, completely unknown to the father, the experienced stationmaster. The train is a wanton intrusion into the boy's so far secure world. What frightens him most of all is the sight of his father's bewilderment while being confronted with an unknown train and the boy understands that the confident, pious man, after all, is not as self-confident and now-all as he had believed him to be. The father has his own doubts and weaknesses. The black locomotive, which with its unknown stoker and empty coaches rushes forward in the darkness of the night becomes an image of the life that lays waiting for the so far inexperienced boy. The train's end station will be the same for each and every one of us - Death.
When Lagerkvist wrote Father and I he was planning to write a comprehensive novel about his childhood. He intended to describe a worrying, though nevertheless credible reality, which not only would enter the mind of a constantly fantasizing child but also his feelings of security and quiescent joy while living close to his siblings and parents:
I will write a book (maybe somewhere in the South) about my childhood, the bookshelf with the Bible, the selection of homilies, Father and Mother, the old grandparents living out in the unspoiled nature, Grandmother with the burning stick in the mouth, Grandfather with his lice comb and brackish farts, paganism and raw, beautiful health ...
It was primarily the presence of a brooding death that would provide relief and depth to the novel and death overshadowed almost everything told in Guest of Reality and Death, the eternal presence of cold-blooded violence and God´s absence also came to characterize Pär Lagerkvist's later writing.
Like so many other children, I was occasionally harassed by paralyzing thoughts about a threatening Death, terrifying deliberations that thankfully has not returned since then. An experience that fueled my deeply felt horror of death was precisely Guest of Reality. Television came late to Sweden. While most of the so-called Western world already had been conquered by this deceitful device it took quite a long time before it appeared in Sweden. It was in 1956 that the Riksdag decided that television should be formally introduced and that all broadcasts would be state-controlled. Initially, they were concentrated on specific geographical areas, though by 1958 they had reached most parts of the Kingdom. Although those who had acquired the TV-sets had to settle for no more than a few hours of TV-watching per night, generally with programs conducted by well-behaved men and women telling their viewers what to appreciate and what to think.
It was in 1958 that the first newscast was introduced – Aktuellt. However, another year or two passed before my father bought a TV set. It was expensive, but he had to give in declaring that since he, after all, was a journalist he had to be able to ”follow” what was happening around him. Already at that time, the so-called ”public opinion” was becoming increasingly influenced by the few evening hours when almost the entire nation was imprisoned in front of the same television program. It was not until 1969 that the state-controlled Sweden's Radio, which the television company was still called, changed its name to The TV Company Sweden´s Television (SVT) and in 1979 it launched a second TV channel – TV 2.
I, and many others with me, still remember the magical feeling when the TV showed up in our home and we sat there imprisoned in an otherwise darkened room while the blue-gray light from the TVset was reflected from our fascinated faces. The exciting feeling when the bell from the City Hall of Stockholm announced that tonight's broadcasts were about to begin.
As I wrote above, the first TV programs were largely characterized by courteous ladies and gentlemen who spoke and acted in front of the cameras. There were still only limited methods for recording the programs and if there appeared any nature program, some exciting series, or a feature movie that had not been produced abroad, the national interest was greater than usual.
Sweden's Radio was already from the start producing several excellent plays and films exclusively made for TV, and it was not long after my father had acquired our television set that Guest of Reality hit me with violent force. Pär Lagerkvist's son Bengt had made a memorable interpretation of his father's novel and its overshadowing fear of death. Although he was at least five years older than me, I had no difficulty identifying with the film's Anders. My unconditional love of my mother and father, my sisters and grandparents, and all-consuming fear of death was by me just as primitive and fundamental as it had been with Anders.
When I in Gothenburg recently was confronted with Sven Ljungberg's interpretation of Anders' prayer in the woods, I recalled seeing it long ago as a woodblock print in some school anthology and was thus reminded not only of a strong reading experience from bygone times, but also how the same scen had been depicted in the TV film. I found it somewhat bewildering that I in such detail could remember something I had experienced almost sixty years ago.
Both the novel and the film clearly indicate how deeply rooted religion was among Anders's close of kin. They read aloud from the Bible and prayed together. However, the had realized that true, heartfelt faith is much more than just common piety, for him it also meant lonely ruminations and sacrifice. He had found a sacred spot just for himself. A place where he could be alone with his fearful God. To capture the right devotional mood he visited his sheltered place only during gloomy days with cold and drizzle. True faith required sacrifice if you are not prepared to sacrifice anything of your comfort and wellbeing your prayers would without effect. When the fear of death overwhelmed him, Anders walked along the railway tracks into the woods, until he found his prayer spot:
A little way in, surrounded by tussocks, lay a flat stone which was barely a few inches above ground level. There was nothing special about it. If anything was remarkable it was simply that there was a stone here at all, there were no others, the mossy earth let them sink. He glanced carefully round, out along the track, though no one would be likely to come that way. And he lay down on the stone and prayed. It was silent all around him, only the dripping from the trees. He was not to be heard either, he didn´t pray out loud, but his cheeks were burning. Straight ahead there was a swampy opening in the forest and in the middle stood a stunted pine barley the size of a man and he looked at this all the time, but he did not direct his prayer to it. No, he prayed to the same God as those at home, there was no difference. But, he had his own out here. His cheeks glowed, he kept his hands folded hard together and prayed no more than one thing: That he shouldn´t die, that none of them should die, none of them! That Father should live, and Mother and all the children. He counted them – the old ones in the country, all of them, all of them! Surely, no one would die! Everything would remain as it was. Nothing would change!
What scared the barely seven-year-old Jan Lundius when he saw that scene on TV was that he also was tormented by similar anxiety. Just like the film's Anders, I had found a secret place in a grove not far from my parental home where I prayed the same prayer – that God would not let any of my loved ones die.
Sven Ljungberg told that before he in 1957 made some wood engravings to illustrate a deluxe edition of Guest of Reality, he presented his sketches to Pär Lagerkvist. The author was quite impressed, declaring Ljungberg had been able to capture the emotions and setting he had tried to describe in his novel and that he was looking forward to see the wood engravings. As soon as Ljungberg had cut and printed the engravings he showed them to Lagerkvist who, after leafing through them again and again exclaimed:
- But what did you do with the picture of the boy praying in the forest?
- I didn't cut it because when I showed you the sketch, you didn't even look at it. You flipped past it as if you didn't like it.
- On the contrary, I was so moved and apprehended that you so skillfully had captured that particular episode that I couldn't even look at the picture. It is the best illustration of them all.
The fearsome culmination of Bengt Lagerkvist´s filmed version his father´s novel is when the grandmother had been buried and a grief-stricken Anders ended up at the funeral party, which in front of his tormented gaze after beginning a solemn affair degenerated into an alcohol-soaked feast where the guests were larking about, making a horrible racket while toasting, gossiping and laughing. When a drunken man playfully gobbled up the cross adorning the funeral cake Anders had more than enough. He went out into the wintry night, passed a couple of old men peeing in the snow, rounded the corner of the cottage and through a frostbitten window watched how his grandfather sat upright in the matrimonial bed reading the Bible in his grief-stricken loneliness. After the reading, the old man looked straight into emptiness and then carefully placed the Bible on the nightstand, while blowing out the candle. Anders turned around, walked through the crackling snow, stopped and looked up and into the starry sky; empty and desolate.
We know that Anders will soon leave his parents' safe piety behind. That he, in fact, is identical with Pär Lagerkvist who, at the age of twenty-five, threw himself into boundless anxiety, reflected in several expressionistic poems in his collection of poetry Ångest, Anguish, written in 1916. God is now dead, everything is cold, empty and devoid of all meaning:
Anguish, anguish is my heritage,
the wound of my throat,
the cry of my heart in the world.
Now the lathered sky congeals
in the coarse hand of night;
now the forests
and the rigid heights
rise barrenly against
the dwarfed vault of the sky.
How hard everything is,
how stiffened, black and silent!
I grope about this darkened room,
I feel the sharp edge of the cliff against my finger.
I tear my sore and aching hands
on the hills and darkened woods,
on the black iron of sky
and on the cold earth!
Anguish, anguish is my heritage,
the wound of my throat,
the cry of my heart in the world.
I have not been able to find out who did this translation, but assume it was Leif Sjöberg and W. H. Auden, who together interpreted poems by several Swedish modernists. Perhaps the young Lagerkvist by the time he wrote his fierce poems had been able to rid himself of his childhood fears of a vengeful, violent and all-powerful God. However, it is doubtful if that really was the case. A strong religious sentiment lingers on. Towards the end of Guest of Reality, a somewhat older Anders is visiting the Salvation Army. He has become fascinated by a young salvation officer but is worried by the overheated religiosity of the meetings and the ”oppressive purity” of the young lady he is attracted to.
Among the frescoes in Gothenburg's city library, Ljungberg has included a picture of a Salvation Army meeting, though it is a calm and somewhat chilly image. Far from an emotional and compassionate poem that strangely enough was included in Lagerkvist's book of anguish, published nine years before, Guest of Reality, he called it At the Salvation Army:
Just now, someone found God.
How the room radiates clarity!
A little person in gray,
worn clothes covering her body
like a feeble shell
around limbs thin and lukewarm,
she fumbles with trembling hands
in open space, blue and wide,
she rises on feet so hot
upwards, towards hovering stars.
It seems as if Pär Lagerkvist kept his specific brand of faith throughout his life. In book after book, he wrestled with an absent God. He even called himself ”God's secretary on earth.” Pär Lagerkvist's most famous novel, at least outside Swedish borders, is supposedly Barabbas.
It is the story of the robber being spared and released instead of Jesus. Barabbas saw the Lord tormented on the cross and witnessed how the world darkened as the helpless Savior died. The experience shook Barabbas within his innermost. His name means Son of the Father and we are all as incapable as him to be able to free us from our fathers´ heritage. In Barabbas´s case the Father was God himself. Jesus's death had relentlessly cast its shadow over Barabbas´s entire existence. Friends said that he had only imagined that when Jesus gave up his breath darkness covered the earth. They advised Barabbas to enjoy the life he had been granted through a strange coincidence.
However, Barabbas could not get out of his mind the man who had been chosen to die instead of him. He made his investigations into who this Jesus might have been. He met with his disciple Peter, as well as a woman who claimed t have been healed by Jesus. He even met Lazarus, whom Jesus was said to have risen from death, but all Lazarus had to say was that "The Kingdom of Death is nothing."
Disappointed, Barabbas returned to his criminal activities and once again became the leader of a ruthless band of bandits. However, he could not escape his destiny. He was taken prisoner, but Pilate was forced to acquit him because according to Roman law he could not punish someone who had previously been pardoned. The fact that Barabbas constantly avoided being killed, turned into a curse. He approached the Christians, but when he tried to share their faith in a man whose death had truly saved him, something always happened that made Barabbas despair and doubt. The Christians constantly approached him, after all – he had seen the Master up close and been with him when he died. In order not to disappoint them, Barabbas invented miracle stories about Jesus. In the end, he almost appeared to believe in them himself. However, every time Barabbas tried to come close to others, he became disappointed. He remained an outsider all his life.
When he was forced to work as a slave in the mines of Cyprus, Barabbas almost became a Christian, but when the only friend he ever had, the Christian Zahak, died, Barabbas despaired again. He ended up in Rome, constantly searching for meaning with his life. Why was he spared death? Was it the will of the Christians´ invisible and silent God's? He had heard that Christians met in the catacombs outside the walls of Rome, but as he went astray in the darkness of endless underground corridors he could not find a trace of any Christians. When he returned to Rome, the entire city was up in flames. He heard people say that it was the Christians who had started the fire. Barabbas knew that it had been said that the resurrected Jesus one day would destroy the evil of the world and he now imagined that the burning of Rome was a decisive proof of Jesus's deity. With enthusiasm he made sure that the fire spread even further, only to find that it was the Roman emperor who had caused the fire and that he was putting the blame on the Christians. Barabbas was imprisoned, but when his ”fellow” Christians found out that Barabbas had been involved in spreading the fire, they turned their backs on him, even though Barabbas like them had been sentenced to death, accused of being a Christian. When Christians were taken away to be executed, they sang and prayed in unison, secure in their close togetherness and strong faith, Barabbas was crucified alone, far from the others. Into the approaching darkness, he cried in despair: "To you, I deliver my soul!"
The year after Pär Lagerkvist wrote Barabbas, the colossal movie Quo Vadis, about Nero's persecution of the Christians, became a world success. It is said that it rescued Metro-Goldwyn-Mayor, MGM, from a threatening bankruptcy. Sword-and-sandal films came into fashion and as early as 1952 the Swedish film company Sandrews made its biggest investment ever – Barabbas was filmed in Israel and Rome, while interiors were shot in Sweden. Director was Alf Sjöberg, who twice had won the Gold Palm in Cannes - 1944 with Torment and in 1951 with Miss Julie.
Sjöberg's directing assistant was the young Bengt Lagerkvist, who thus began his career in Swedish film. He subsequently made highly acclaimed series for The Swedish Television, films based on famous Swedish classics, such as The People of Hemsö (1966), The Queen's Tiara (1967), Bombi Bitt and I (1968) and Somewhere in Sweden (1973), to name just a few of his most acclaimed TVseries.
Barabbas competed in Cannes, but was not rewarded, instead it recieved awful reviews. The criticism was devastating, for example, did Max Favalelli, film critic of Paris Press, write:
Imagine a burlesque opera, staged by a director with a strong pathos and played by a bunch of inept old men from some second-rate small town theatre. It is, in fact, the most stressful experience I have had ever since I fled Paris during the German occupation.
Sandrews had played for high stakes and lost miserably, the disaster was somewhat smoothened when Swedish director Arne Sucksdorff won both the Palme d´Or at Cannes and the Golden Bear in Berlin with his The Great Adventure about two boys and an otter.
Although there is some risk that it was worthy of a Golden Turkey Award I would like to watch Alf Sjöberg's Barabbas, though I do not know how to get hold it. However, I have seen and appreciated Richard Fleischer's Barabbas from 1961, with Anthony Quinn as Barabbas, but also with several Italian big stars in the cast, like Silvana Mangano and Vittorio Gassman. Dino De Laurentiis produced the film and Nobel Laureate and poet Salvatore Quasimodo participated in the writing of the screenplay, though I do not know how Pär Lagerkvist reacted to the film and its fairly extensive reworkings of his story. However, I know that he was present during the fourteen days when Alf Sjöberg filmed Barabbas in Rome.Fleischer's film was shot exclusively in Rome and Verona. Ben Hur, the 1959 feature film, was also filmed within CineCittá in Rome. If Ben Hur had the famous horse race as its climax and main attraction, Fleischer´s Barabbas had gladiator fights, especially the one between Anthony Quinn and the demonic Jack Palance, who in 1953 unforgettably had played the black-clad villain in Shane .
The father of my good friend Alessio Morelli owned a delicatessen near one of the apartments we have lived in here in Rome. He sold the store several years ago. Well, Alessio's father once told me how he and his brother, who in his youth had been a professional boxer, the same day but in different parts of Rome had been recruited as extras for Quo Vadis. Each had been stopped in the street and asked to participate in the movie and became quite surprised when they met in CineCittá. Since then the had been participating in many of the sword-and-sandal films with biblical, Roman or Greek-mythological motifs that were mass-produced in Italy between 1958 and 1965 when Spaghetti Westerns took over. In Italy, such films are called cine di peplum, after the Latin name for the short tunics that the film heroes and heroines used to wear.
The Morelli brothers assumed that the highlight of their movie career was when they acted as gladiators in Fleischer´s Barabbas, in which the youngest brother was chosen to stage a violent gladiator battle with no less than the great Jack Palance. The brothers generally had to play infantry soldiers, wrestlers, galley slaves, or gladiators since the movie directors generally assumed they were too heavy for equestrian scenes. Unfortunately, the younger brother's gladiator scewas cut from the final version of Barabbas, a movie marketed as Begins where the other big ones leave off! In contrast to the somewhat laterne feature film Cleopatra, which nearly bankrupted 20th Century Fox, Barabbas became a huge success with movie critics.
My father had most of Lagerkvist's books in his bookshelf and one time I read the short novels he wrote after Barabbas. I do not know if Lagerkvist wrote any more poems after 1953. He did, however, continue his stubborn fight with his absent and cruel God. Like death, which is present by its absence, since it is alive and well in our thoughts, Lagerkvist´s God is also very much present, in spite of his obvious absence.
Lagerkvist´s novel The Sybil tells the story about a girl who is chosen to become a sacred being. The choice is made by a bunch of scamming priests who do not really believe in the oracle and god they are serving. Nevertheless, just by being chosen to become holy, the girl is gravely affected by the presence of an absent god. She becomes special and has to suffer by not being like others. She is sacrificed by religious bigotry but still feels that there is some kind of presence beyond all the trappings of the official religion, a hidden mystery beyond human existence. The absence/presence of God completely changes and eventually destroys the poor girl. She is sacrificed on several levels, both personal and spiritual. She falls in love with a man and since this is forbidden for a Sybil the man is executed. During a ceremony, the Sybil becomes pregnant with a child who turns out to be mentally handicapped. The Sybil knows that she would not have the child if it had not been for the absent god's presence. Since she so obviously had lost her virginity, she also loses her gift of prophecy and is ostracized from society. She is forced to live alone with her half-witted son, being the only one among the ”believers” around her who actually has experienced God´s presence on earth, been touched and afflicted by Him.
Ahasverus in Ahasverus's Death has had a similar experience. He had also met God, in the shape of Jesus, who during his walk to Calvary by Ahasverus was denied to rest by his door, a crime that was severely punished by God. Like the Sybil, Ahasverus became an involuntarily chosen victim of God's apparent capriciousness. Why did God let Jesus stop by the door of Ahasverus? The unfortunate encounter with God´s son made Ahasverus an outcast. He laments his grief, rages against a God who by appearing in the midst of humankind "robbed people of their innocence", only to them leave them alone with nagging doubts and bad conscience. An emptiness that is not an emptiness at all, because neither God nor death can be entirely dispelled and this is precisely what torments Ahasverus and makes him hate God and the religion that Jesus left behind. The presence of nothingness that suffocates life.
– He keeps us away from what we actually long for, while he assumes we long for him.
Religion blocks our experience of what is truly divine. Rituals and religious bigotry obscure the sacred. Since both Ahasverus and the Sibyl were gravely affected by the cruelty of an invisible/absent God, they can never rid themselves of the thought of Him
In Pilgrim at Sea we meet Tobias, who previously had met with Ahasverus and since then, like him, had been trying to get rid of his anguish, his forlorn search after an absent God. He sets off on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land but ends up on a pirate ship, sailed by a bunch of brutal bandits. Among them is the rouge Giovanni, who wholeheartedly appears to enjoy the rough and unrestrained life among the seaports' criminals and prostitutes. Giovanni was once a priest, though he lost his assignment and was expelled when his pious congregation learned that he had fallen in love with a married woman and that his love was reciprocated. He had since then chosen to ignore God's silence and cruelty by becoming a full-fledged villain. However, like the Sybil and Ahasverus, Giovanni was nevertheless an outcast, but unlike the Sybil, Giovanni did not become a hermit. However, God did not leave Giovanni alone with his sins. He stroke him down with incurable blindness. Giovanni wondered day and night if this was God´s punishment, or merely something that could befall anyone, a godfearing saint just as well as a blasphemous sinner. However, Giovanni finds no relief in the world of crime and debauchery, though both he and Tobias perceives some tranquility at sea, a border zone between the worlds of mankind.
In the Holy Land, Giovanni and Tobias end up on an unknown coast, with ruins of a forgotten temple. The shepherds who live there do not seem to know God. They wonder why Giovanni has become blind and he tells them that he assumes it is a punishment from God. They ask him why he is so sure about that, among them, there are also blind people who apparently have not committed any serious sins as all. Why would an omnipotent creature like Giovanni´s God among millions of others care about one insignificant human being? Giovanni has no answer but is well aware of the fact he has sinned against an unknown, mighty god and that must be the reason for his particular blindness. There must be a connection – Giovanni cannot help interpreting his suffering as a proof of God´s existence. Furthermore, even if God does not exist that does not hinder that a belief in His presence makes us human suffer.
I don't know if I remember Lagerkvist´s books correctly. I have not read them again. I once asked my father why he kept all those books by Lagerkvist. Did he like them? "Well, I don't know," he replied. “They are not particularly entertaining, but I couldn't help reading them. And now they are standing there. It's hard to tell if they're good or not. They stand there and remind me of their presence.” Contrary to many other books I have read, Lagerkvist´s stories have basically remained with me. They are so to speak both present and absent. Impersonal and hard to forget, like myths and fairy tales.
Finally, Lagerkvist became some kind of national monument, Nobel Laureate, and Academy member. Was he a Christian, or an atheist? He was definitely "not like people are most". Many thought he was boring. I considered it to be a healthy sign when a poet like Göran Palm, son of the pastor and rather well-known theologian Samuel Palm, in his poetry happily kicked in every direction. He devoted more than twenty years to the writing of an epic in blank verse, which he called Sweden - a Winter´s Tale, dealing with “the continuous dismantling of the dream of a fair and just people's home [”the people´s home” was a famous slogan of the Swedish Socialdemocratic Party].” In his poem The Sergeant of the Soul from 1963, Palm wanders through Stockholm. In short sentences, he describes what he sees and encounters in Sweden´s capital. Each sight is followed by an angry comment, or an absurd, not realized, action. The long poem is unrestrained, senseless, funny and provocative. For example:
An age-old relative comes dressed in black
comes out from the Elim Chapel.
Tell her you often think about her
while you masturbate.
She may need some encouragement.
The Elim Chapel was the Baptists´ main church in Stockholm. Much of what Palm wrote was hostile to religion. As the priest´s son, he actually was, he might have been what my father used to call "a grandchild of God," i.e. someone who stood one step further away from God than “God´s children”. Palm was a prominent member of the League of Humanists who promoted and probably continues to do so (they have renamed their association The Humanists) secularism, or more correctly what they label as secular humanism, i.e. a good and just society freed from God, church and religious pondering. Göran Palm does in his poem also provide a humorous comment on the generally respected brooder Pär Lagerkvist:
Pär Lagerkvist steps out of a taxi.
Tell him that ”Barabbas”
is the funniest book you have ever read!
I do not know if Pär Lagerkvist succeeded in overcoming the horrors of his childhood, but it is clear that throughout his eighty years long, conscious life he wrestled with his origins in bible-faithful Småland. The overshadowing presence of God lingered, even after Lagerkvist imagined that it had been dispersed. He could never free himself from his God. Throughout his life, Lagerkvist was tormented by God´s absence. Like Barabbas, he wants to believe in God, but since understanding, according to Lagerkvist, is a prerequisite for belief, he is unable to do do so.
One thing is certain, and it is that his son Bengt, during his last few months in life was paralyzed by his thoughts about death. In a TV interview he gave in 2014 sometime before his death, Bengt Lagerkvist told the journalist:
I suffer from pulmonary fibrosis making it hard for me to breathe and my heart becomes strained. I have to be constantly connected to an oxygen apparatus and can only with great difficulty take a short walk around the square below. This disease suddenly struck me a month ago and has changed my life, now when I soon will be 85 years old. It is extremely difficult to accept. I have an enomous fear of death. Sadly enough.
Since many years back, I have no fear whatsoever of death. I cannot remember when this fear disappeared. I assume it had blown away when I reached the age of Anders in Guest of Reality. Maybe it will come back when I get older and frail. Might fear of death be hereditary? I sat by both my father's and my mother's deathbed. I was very fond of them and sometimes am deeply affected by the loss of them. However, I am grateful that when I sat next to them during their last hours on earth they did not demonstrate any fear or worries about their approaching death. Neither did they do so earlier. Although they rarely talked about it, I do not think they believed in Heaven or Hell. Neither Mother nor Father, were particularly religious, although during my childhood they often went to the church accompanied by us children and they were familiar with the Bible and the Swedish Hymn Book. When I was a kid we blessed the food together and thanked God for it, but I cannot remember they did it when I had become an adult.
A fear of death like the one Lagerkvist described in Guest of Reality must be difficult to endure. It also seems to be characterized by its environment. While writing about Guest of Reality I came to think about the Englishman Julian Barnes. In Nothing to be Frightened of he writes about his and others' horror of death. Because the majority of people around him, and society at large, seem to take fairly lightly on the certainty of death he finds his suffering to be quite embarrassing. For as long as he can remember, fear of death has been a part of Barnes's existence. Every day he thinks about death and during nights
I am thrown from sleep into darkness, panic and a malicious awareness that this is a world to be borrowed. . . awake, alone, completely alone, I hit the pillow with my fist and scream 'Oh no! Oh no! Oh NO ”during an incessant chatter.
According to Barnes, death is nothing but non-existence, a total emptiness. His book is called Nothing to be Frightenned of and it is this ”nothing”, an all-encompassing, complete void, which scares him. Barnes wonders why he has to mentally crippled by ”nothingness”. To him, religion is a worthless cure for death anxiety, as well as psychotherapy, this modern religion devoid of Christianity's impressive history marked as it is by poignant music and masterful art. According to Branes, psychotherapy is nothing but a superficial humbug, a ”contemporary religion” trying to create a
secular, modern heaven of self-fulfilment: the development of the personality, the relationships which help define us, the status-giving job, . . . the accumulation of sexual exploits, the visits to the gym, the consumption of culture. It all adds up to happiness, doesn’t it — doesn’t it? This is our chosen myth.
Optimism is self-deception. A belief in bodily functions has superseded the profound mysticism of religion, which unfortunately is equally worthless in alleviating death anxiety – God´s absence in the dark night of the soul, which may have brought some world-averted and deranged fanatics closer to Him, but not Julian Barnes. To him, the brain is just a lump of meat and the soul merely ”a story the brain tells itself.” Individuality is an illusion. Scientists have found no physical evidence a ”self” and even less so the existence of a soul.
As a feeble remedy for overcoming his death anxiety, Julian Barnes wrote a book about death, memories, meditations on the meaning of life, and the complete disappearance of God, but unlike Lagerkvist's profound mysteries, Barnes's offers a concoction written with tempo, wit, and British humor, filled with entertaining, and some pointless anecdotes about other death-obsessed writers, artists, and composers, like the unforgettable story about Sergei Rachmaninov´s fear of death. As an example of Barnes's witty storytelling, the rachmaninovian anecdote is worth quoting in its entirety:
Every thanataphobe needs the temporary comfort of a worst-case exemplar. I have G. he has Rachmaninov, a man both terrified of death and terrified that there might be survival after it; a composer who worked the Dies Irae into his music more times than anyone else; a cinema-goer who ran gibbering from the hall during the opening graveyard scene of Frankenstein. Rachmaninov only surprised his friends when he didn´t want to talk about death. A typical occasion; in 1915, he went to visit the poet Marietta Shaginyan and her mother. First, he asked the mother to tell his fortune in cards, in order (of course) to find out how much longer he had to live. Then he settled down to talk to the daughter about death; his chosen text that day being a short story by Artstbashev. There was a dish of salted pistachio nuts at hand. Rachmaninov ate a mouthful, talked about death. Suddenly, he broke off and laughed. ”The pistachio nuts have made my fear go away. Do you know where to?” Neither the poet nor her mother could answer this question, but when Rachmanicov left for Moscow they gave him a whole sack of nuts for the journey ”to cure his fear of death”.
With Barnes, we are far away from Pär Lagekvist's heavy-hearted myth-making, but his good mood cannot hide death´s ominous presence. An entirely different author than Lagerkvist and Barnes is Astrid Lindgren, although she also, just like Pär Lagerkvist, finds her roots deep down in Småland´s soil. Maybe this ingenious teller of children´s tales is not so different from neither the myth-making Lagerkvist nor the witty Julian Barnes. Astrid also appeared to suffer from a severe fear of death, maybe a legacy from her pious childhood. She also told myths and stories to master her fear of death and what she perceived to be the death, or at least absence, of God. When someone asked Astrid if she still kept her childhood faith and still believed in God, she replied:
No, I honestly I don't. Although if my father had lived, I might never have dared to say this because then he would have become sad. It is perhaps shameful by me to deny God because I still thank him quite often and pray to him when I am in despair.
Something Pär Lagerkvist could probably approve of, and probably practiced as well. In book after book, Astrid Lindgren tackled her thoughts about God's absence and the certainty of death and like Lagerkvist she did so in the form of fairy tales and myths.
Probably more than any other modern storyteller, death is present in Astrid's stories. In older fairy tales, however, Death is a well-known figure. A master teller like H. C. Andersen was at least as obsessed with death as Astrid Lindgren, though his tales about Death are by far more lugubrious than those written by Astrid.
The mother of Pippi Longstockings is an angel. The children in the short story collection The Red Bird have all lost their parents and are themselves dying. In Simon Small Moves In, Bertil's sister has died. In the young adult´s book Kati in Paris, the protagonist considers suicide. In Ronja the Robber´s Daughter, the kind and old Skalle-Per dies. In Mio´s Kingdom and The Brothers Lionheart death is most evident.
Mio´s Kingdom takes place in the magical Land of Faraway, perhaps it is the same fantasy kingdom as Nagirjala in The Brothers Lion Heart and I wonder if the land in Mio´s Kingdom, like Nangirjala is a reign of death invented by Astrid to mitigate her own fear of death and its constant presence, symbolized by the Sorrowbird.
But in the top of the tallest poplar, sat a great black solitary bird. It sang more sweetly than all the white birds put together. It felt as if this bird sang only for me. But I didn´t want to listen, beacuse its song was so eery.
Death, the bird and a reborn tree are found in the tragic short story My Nightingale is Singing, one of the death-obsessed tales in The Red Bird. In this short fairy tale, the orphaned Malin dies among the old people at a fattigstuga, poorhouse, but her departed soul causes a seemingly dead tree to bloom. Absence – Presence.
Close to the end of her life, Astrid spoke to her sisters Ingegerd and Stina on the phone every day. They always started their conversations with the words "The Death, the Death", to ”get rid of that issue”, clear the air and then talk about other, nicer things. The seemingly unassuming ease with which Astrid paces around her death anxiety is somewhat reminiscent of Julian Barnes's stylistic, humorous overcrowding around his constant torment, under both attitudes we perceive an ever-deepening darkness.
In an interview shortly after her son Lars had died, Astrid Lindgren stated that "You have to live in such a way that you become friends with death." The statement was followed by a longer pause, then she said, almost inaudibly: ”That´s what I believe, tra, la, la.” This has been interpreted as her way of trivializing grief, but I think it was the other way around, I suppose it was memories from the Småland of her childhood that rose to the surface – the profound sadness and sense of loss reflected in a strange dance song I heard as a child, but then I did not understand that it was perhaps dealing with death and that death anxiety maybe can be overcome by an absurd belief in a life after this:
Thief and thief, shall be thy name,
´cause you stole my little friend,
though I´ll have sweet comfort
that I´ll get her back again.
That´s what I believe, tra la la,
That´s what I believe, tra la la,
That´s what I believe, tra la la,
That´s what I believe, tra la la.
Barnes, Julian (2019) Nothing to be Frightened of. London: Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1963) The Sybil. London:Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1966) The Holy Land. London:Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1982) Pilgrim at Sea. London:Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1982) Death of Ahasuerus. London: Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1989) Barabbas. London:Vintage. Lagerkvist, Pär (1989) Guest of Reality and Other Stories. London: Quartet Books. Lindgren, Astrid (2011) Mio´s Kingdom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.